Micronutrient Antioxidants in the Chemoprevention of Breast Cancer and Effect on Breast Cancer Outcomes

Abstract

Breast cancer remains one of the most frequent cancers affecting women globally. The incidence of breast cancer is rising due to improved screening and awareness, and there is epidemiological data signifying an interaction among environmental and biological risk factors in the development and progress of breast cancer. There is substantial experimental data of the protective effect of micronutrient antioxidants for breast cancer via alteration of many signaling pathways and molecular events including inducing apoptosis, and inhibition of breast cancer cell proliferation and invasion. The main focus of this review is to examine past and current epidemiological evidence that suggests that nutritional micronutrients with antioxidant properties in dietary or supplemental form may be beneficial in protecting women against breast cancer and affect outcomes.

Influence of Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) on Female Reproduction

“…They could either up- or down-regulate oestrogen receptor alpha 27 , 28 and decrease the expression of oestrogen receptor alpha 27 and increase production of 2-methoxyestradiol and to affect oestrogen metabolism 24 . These actions on steroid hormones production and reception could explain their ability to affect the development of oestrogen-dependent breast cancer or oestrogen-dependent glucose metabolism and cardiovascular risk in postmenopausal individuals 25 , 28 . Finally, flaxseed can down-regulate the IGF (insulin-like growth factor)/insulin signalling pathway 27 , which is involved in the control of metabolic, proliferative and reparative processes.…”

“…The intracellular mediators of flaxseed action on some physiological processes and illnesses have been described in a series of special reviews 3 , 18 , 25 , 26 . The anti-hypertensive, anti-atherosclerotic, anti-platelet aggregation and cardioprotective effects of flaxseed proteins and other molecules could be due to its ability to suppress inflammatory processes via down-regulation of pro-inflammatory transcription factor NF- κ B 3 .…”

“…Flaxseed enterolactones have high antioxidant properties (ability to neutralize reactive oxygen species directly or via up-regulation of antioxidant enzymes 7 ). Due to the antioxidant 7 and antiestrogenic 27 , 28 (see also below) properties, flaxseed and enterolactones can suppress the development of cancer in various organs, suppressing mutagenesis and the promoters of cell proliferation, survival, angiogenesis, inflammation and metastasis 20 , 25 , 26 . The neuroprotective action of flaxseed α -linolenic acid can be explained by the activation of endogenous neuroprotective and neurorestorative pathways in the brain via up-regulation of the transcription factor NF- κ B, a brain-derived neurotrophic factor and its receptor 18 .…”

Molecular Pathways of Rosmarinic Acid Anticancer Activity in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cells: A Literature Review

“…Other possible signs of BC are dimpling, peeling, or redness in the area of skin surrounding the nipple [1][2][3][4][5][6][7]. Many documented risk factors for BC have been identified, including age, gene mutations, family history, mammographic breast density, menstrual and menopausal history, radiation exposure, and lifestyle [14,15].…”

“…The induced 2 of 13 destruction of tissue and cell tumors following physical or chemical irreversible damage to the genetic material of cancer cells is a central goal of these therapeutic approaches [18]. However, the effectiveness of such treatments does not exceed 30%; in several cases, cancer cells show resistance after prolonged therapy [15,19]. As a result, in recent decades, research has concentrated on the development of medications that may target cancer cells while avoiding the molecular pathways that contribute to chemotherapeutic and radiation resistance [20].…”