Molecular and cellular mechanisms of the organogenesis and development of the mammalian carotid body

Abstract

Despite significant advancements in understanding physiological properties of the carotid body, little attention has been paid to its organogenesis. This review addresses the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying organogenesis of the carotid body in mammals. The carotid body consists of two types of cells, that is, glomus cells and sustentacular cells, that are derived from different origins. Glomus cells are derivatives of neural crest cells which form sympathetic ganglia. Sustentacular cells are derivatives of mesenchymal neural crest cells which colonize the third pharyngeal arch and form the wall of the third arch artery. Gene-targeting studies indicate that three elements are required for carotid body organogenesis: the carotid sinus nerve (CSN), third arch artery, and superior cervical sympathetic ganglion (SCG). The CSN sends sensory fibers and Schwann cells to the wall of the third arch artery. The third arch artery provides mesenchymal cells, which give rise to sustentacular cells. The nerve process from the SCG sends glomus cell progenitors into the carotid body primordium. The presence of stem cells in the adult carotid body was recently highlighted. The origin of stem cells, however, remains controversial. Based on embryonic development of the carotid body, this review proposes the origin of stem cells. K E Y W O R D S carotid sinus nerve, migration of glomus cell progenitors, neural crest cell, superior cervical sympathetic ganglion, third arch artery

The follicle‐sinus complex of the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). Functional anatomy and possible evolutional significance of its somato‐sensory innervation

“…Therefore, the precise route of the TH-ir that was observed in the FSC of dolphins remains to be ascertained. It may be possible that the internal carotid artery develops in the odontocete embryo to guide the growing sympathetic fibers from the cervical ganglion since it is known that the axonal outgrowth of mammalian sympathetic precursors proceeds in dependence and thus in parallel to the development of the internal carotid artery (reviewed in Kameda, 2020). Thus, possibly only after the sympathetic fibers have found their route, the internal carotid artery obliterates in odontocetes.…”

Cellular basis of learning and memory in the carotid body

“…The type II sustentacular cells of the carotid body ( Figure 2B ) form networks of supporting cells. They are derived from mesenchymal cells and are of glial cell lineage ( Kameda, 2020 ). Aside from their striking visual similarity to astrocytes and other glial cells of the brain, type II cells contain intermediate size filaments and express glial markers including glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) vimentin, and S100 protein ( Kameda, 2020 ).…”

“…They are derived from mesenchymal cells and are of glial cell lineage ( Kameda, 2020 ). Aside from their striking visual similarity to astrocytes and other glial cells of the brain, type II cells contain intermediate size filaments and express glial markers including glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) vimentin, and S100 protein ( Kameda, 2020 ). In healthy carotid bodies, the number of type I cells outnumbers the type II cells by a factor of approximately three to five ( McDonald and Mitchell, 1975 ; Verna, 1979 ; Hansen, 1985 ).…”

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“…It is commonly known that the carotid body placed in the carotid bifurcation region is an organ consisting of chemoreceptor cells, which are mainly sensitive to changes in O 2 and CO 2 partial pressures in blood. They also have the ability to detect hypoxia and can react to acidic pH in the blood [1][2][3][4]. The carotid body may also play other multidirectional functions, including the regulation of metabolism, the maintenance of glucose homeostasis and thermoregulatory processes, among others [5][6][7].…”