“…Experimental studies on permeability measurements of clay, however, are limited with regard to the parameter spaces explored (e.g., porosity, water saturation, clay types, and surface chemistry) and are sensitive to minute artifacts as a result of the low permeability (Best & Katsube, 1995; Keller et al, 2013; Kwon et al, 2004). Therefore, microscale models are often used to explore the hydraulic properties of clay, such as discrete element method, Monte Carlo simulation, and molecular dynamics simulation (Bayesteh & Mirghasemi, 2015; Ebrahimi et al, 2014; Hu et al, 2018; Meyer et al, 2001; Sun et al, 2015). Most of these simulations assume that the clay surfaces are uniformly covered with several layers of water molecules, which is usually too ideal to be representative of the actual water distribution in the subsurface.…”