Neural Correlates of Feedback Processing in Toddlers

Abstract

Abstract■ External feedback provides essential information for successful learning. Feedback is especially important for learning in early childhood, as toddlers strongly rely on external signals to determine the consequences of their actions. In adults, many electrophysiological studies have elucidated feedback processes using a neural marker called the feedback-related negativity (FRN). The neural generator of the FRN is assumed to be the ACC, located in medial frontal cortex. As frontal brain regions are the latest to mature during brain development, it is unclear when in early childhood a functional feedback system develops. Is feedback differentiated on a neural level in toddlers and in how far is neural feedback processing related to childrenʼs behavioral adjustment? In an EEG experiment, we addressed these questions by measuring the brain activity and behavioral performance of 2.5-year-old toddlers while they played a feedback-guided game on a touchscreen. Electrophysiological results show differential brain activity for feedback with a more negative deflection for incorrect than correct outcomes, resembling the adult FRN. This provides the first neural evidence for feedback processing in toddlers. Notably, FRN amplitudes were predictive of adaptive behavior: the stronger the differential brain activity for feedback, the better the toddlersʼ adaptive performance during the game. Thus, already in early childhood toddlersʼ feedback-guided performance directly relates to the functionality of their neural feedback processing. Implications for early feedback-based learning as well as structural and functional brain development are discussed. ■

Differential effects of real versus hypothetical monetary reward magnitude on risk-taking behavior and brain activity

“…Consistent with this idea, significant correlations were found between delta FRN and delta risk-taking behavior for real monetary rewards. These findings are also in line with previous findings that the FRN following monetary loss was more negative-going when participants chose a different option on the subsequent trial 43 , 72 – 75 . However, no correlations were found between delta FRN and delta risk-taking behavior for hypothetical monetary rewards, providing further evidence supporting that real and hypothetical reward magnitudes may affect risk-taking behavior and brain activity in a different manner.…”

Paying out one versus paying out all trials and the decrease in behavioral and brain activity in the Balloon Analogue Risk Task

“…Consistent with this idea, we found significant correlations in the pay‐all condition between FRN that was elicited by a balloon's explosion in the previous trial and decision‐making behavior in the current trial. Furthermore, these findings are also in line with previous findings that the FRN that followed negative feedback was more negative when participants chose a different option on the subsequent trial (Cohen, Elger, & Ranganath, ; Holroyd & Krigolson, ; Meyer, Bekkering, Janssen, de Bruijn, & Hunnius, ; Xu et al, , ).…”

Electrophysiological Examination of Feedback-Based Learning in 8–11-Year-Old Children

“…There is a growing interest in the developmental changes in feedback processing and in the FRN as a possible tool to evaluate these changes. Using the FRN for such evaluation is permitted by evidence that the FRN is reliably identified and measured in young children (e.g., van Meel et al, 2012), and even in toddlers (Meyer et al, 2014;Roos et al, 2015). When comparing the FRN in children with that of adolescents and adults, a common reported pattern is a larger FRN in children, regardless of feedback valence (Hämmerer et al, 2011;Zottoli and Grose-Fifer, 2012;Crowley et al, 2013;Ferdinand et al, 2016;Arbel et al, 2017), with some studies reporting no age related differences in FRN amplitude (Santesso et al, 2011;Yi et al, 2012;Lukie et al, 2014).…”