Orthographic processing in visual word recognition:  A multiple read-out model.

Grainger, Jonathan; Jacobs, Arthur M.

doi:10.1037/0033-295x.103.3.518

Cited by 1,022 publications

(1,464 citation statements)

References 117 publications

(496 reference statements)

Supporting

Mentioning

1,346

Contrasting

Unclassified

Order By: Relevance

“…Our findings pose additional problems for the position-specific input coding schemes used in most current computational models of visual word recognition (e.g., the IA model, McClelland & Rumelhart, 1981, and its successors, the multiple read-model, Grainger & Jacobs, 1996, and the DRC model, Coltheart et al, 2001, as well as recent models in the parallel distributed processing framework, e.g., Harm & Seidenberg, 2004, as well as the hybrid CDP ϩ model, Perry et al, 2007). As noted in the Introduction, a position-specific input coding scheme based on absolute position can explain the interference effects for initial overlap ANs and DNs.…”

Section: Implications For Orthographic-input Coding Schemesmentioning

confidence: 97%

Re(de)fining the orthographic neighborhood: The role of addition and deletion neighbors in lexical decision and reading.

Davis¹,

Perea²,

Acha³

2009

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Perfor

111

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

The influence of addition and deletion neighbors on visual word identification was investigated in four experiments. Experiments 1 and 2 used Spanish stimuli. In Experiment 1, lexical decision latencies were slower and less accurate for words and nonwords with higher-frequency deletion neighbors (e.g., jugar in juzgar), relative to control stimuli. Experiment 2 showed a similar interference effect for words and nonwords with higher-frequency addition neighbors (e.g., conejo, which has the addition neighbor consejo), relative to control stimuli. Experiment 3 replicated this addition neighbor interference effect in a lexical decision experiment with English stimuli. Across all three experiments, interference effects were always evident for addition/deletion neighbors with word-outer overlap, usually present for those with word-initial overlap, but never present for those with word-final overlap. Experiment 4 replicated the addition/deletion neighbor inhibitory effects in a Spanish sentence reading task in which the participants' eye movements were monitored. These findings suggest that conventional orthographic neighborhood metrics should be redefined. In addition to its methodological implications, this conclusion has significant theoretical implications for input coding schemes and the mechanisms underlying word recognition. Keywords: visual word recognition, lexical inhibition, neighborhood effects, orthographic input coding, SOLAR modelIn the past decade, cracking the orthographic code has become a key question for researchers in visual word recognition and reading (see Grainger, 2008, for a recent review). The origins of this quest can be traced 3 decades ago, when Coltheart, Davelaar, Jonasson, and Besner (1977) reported an experiment that has come to be considered a classic study in the field of visual word identification. To investigate lexical access procedures, Coltheart and colleagues manipulated an orthographic similarity metric that they labeled "N". The N metric had previously been suggested by Landauer and Streeter (1973) as a measure of the number of close "neighbors" of a stimulus, and was computed by counting the number of words that can be created by changing a single letter of the stimulus. For example, N ϭ 10 for the word river (which has an orthographic neighborhood that includes the words diver, liver, rover, rider, and rivet), whereas N ϭ 1 for the word drive, as only a single word (drove) can be formed by substituting a single letter. In a lexical decision task, Coltheart et al. (1977) found that N had no effect on the latency of "Yes" responses, but that "No" responses were significantly slower to large-N nonwords than to small-N nonwords. This was interpreted as evidence against a serial search model and in favor of a parallel access model like Morton's (1970) logogen model. It was argued that fixating a written word leads to the automatic activation of its neighbors, and that this lexical activation made it harder to reject large-N nonwords than small-N nonwords.In the years since Colth...

show abstract

Section: Implications For Orthographic-input Coding Schemesmentioning

confidence: 97%

Re(de)fining the orthographic neighborhood: The role of addition and deletion neighbors in lexical decision and reading.

Davis¹,

Perea²,

Acha³

2009

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Perfor

111

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

show abstract

“…These include the multiple read-out model (Grainger & Jacobs, 1996), the dual-route cascaded model (Coltheart et al, 2001), the interactive activation model (McClelland & Rumelhart, 1981), and the activation-verification model (Paap et al, 1982). Contextsensitive encoding, such as with the "wickelfeature" scheme of the connectionist model of Seidenberg and McClelland (1989), cannot account for TL effects either.…”

Section: Models Of Visual Word Recognitionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Transposed-letter effects in reading: Evidence from eye movements and parafoveal preview.

Johnson¹,

Perea

Rayner³

2007

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Perfor

161

201

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

Three eye movement experiments were conducted to examine the role of letter identity and letter position during reading. Before fixating on a target word within each sentence, readers were provided with a parafoveal preview that differed in the amount of useful letter identity and letter position information it provided. In Experiments 1 and 2, previews fell into 1 of 5 conditions: (a) identical to the target word, (b) a transposition of 2 internal letters, (c) a substitution of 2 internal letters, (d) a transposition of the 2 final letters, or (e) a substitution of the 2 final letters. In Experiment 3, the authors used a further set of conditions to explore the importance of external letter positions. The findings extend previous work and demonstrate that transposed-letter effects exist in silent reading. These experiments also indicate that letter identity information can be extracted from the parafovea outside of absolute letter position from the first 5 letters of the word to the right of fixation. Finally, the results support the notion that exterior letters play important roles in visual word recognition.Keywords: eye tracking, reading, transposed letters, parafoveal processing How are the letter identities and letter positions within a written word encoded? Letter identity and position must both play a role or people would be unable to distinguish between anagrams such as stop, pots, tops, opts, post, and spot. Although there is general agreement that a given letter string will activate not only the appropriate word from the lexicon but also a number of perceptually similar words, the specific way in which a model specifies the coding of letter position affects which words are considered similar.Many models, for example, assume a channel-specific (or position-specific) coding scheme. In such models, letter position is coded early in lexical processing and letters are immediately tagged to their position within the string of letters. Each letter is then processed within its specific channel independent of the other letters in the letter string. Examples of such models include the multiple read-out model (Grainger & Jacobs, 1996), the dual-route cascaded model (Coltheart, Rastle, Perry, Ziegler, & Langdon, 2001), the interactive activation model (McClelland & Rumelhart, 1981), and the activation-verification model (Paap, Newsome, McDonald, & Schvaneveldt, 1982). These models predict that the nonwords jugde, junpe, and juxxe are all equally similar to the word judge, because in each case, the nonword contains three letters in their correct letter positions. However, the nonword jugde shares all of the same letters as the word judge and differs only in a transposition of two internal, adjacent letters. So intuitively it seems that this transposed letter (TL) nonword jugde is much more similar to the base word judge than is the substituted letter (SL) nonword junpe. Indeed, research supports these intuitions; a number of experiments using a variety of tasks have found that TL nonwords are more similar to their...

show abstract

“…This study manipulated the orthographic neighborhood size of the word and nonword stimuli, i.e., the number of words that are orthographically similar to (differing by one letter from) the stimulus (Coltheart et al, 1977). Increasing the neighborhood size of a stimulus affects performance on speeded visual recognition tasks (Andrews, 1989;Carreiras et al, 1997;Coltheart et al, 1977;Forster and Shen, 1996;Grainger and Jacobs, 1996;Huntsman and Lima, 1996;Sears et al, 1995), and many theorists have proposed that these effects represent partial activation of the word units in the lexicon that represent the neighbors of the stimulus. That is, reading the word TAIL will cause partial activation of the word nodes for BAIL, FAIL, MAIL, NAIL, PAIL, RAIL, SAIL, TOIL, and TALL.…”

Section: Lexicon or Semantics?mentioning

confidence: 99%

Some neurophysiological constraints on models of word naming

et al. 2005

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

The pronunciation of irregular words in deep orthographies like English cannot be specified by simple rules. On the other hand, the fact that novel letter strings can be pronounced seems to imply the existence of such rules. These facts motivate dual-route models of word naming, which postulate separate lexical (whole-word) and non-lexical (rulebased) mechanisms for accessing phonology. We used fMRI during oral naming of irregular words, regular words, and nonwords, to test this theory against a competing single-mechanism account known as the triangle model, which proposes that all words are handled by a single system containing distributed orthographic, phonological, and semantic codes rather than word codes. Two versions of the dual-route model were distinguished: an dexclusiveT version in which activation of one processing route predominates over the other, and a dparallelT version in which both routes are equally activated by all words. The fMRI results provide no support for the exclusive dual-route model. Several frontal, insular, anterior cingulate, and parietal regions showed responses that increased with naming difficulty (nonword > irregular word > regular word) and were correlated with response time, but there was no activation consistent with the predicted response of a nonlexical, rule-based mechanism (i.e., nonword > regular word > irregular word). Several regions, including the angular gyrus and dorsal prefrontal cortex bilaterally, left ventromedial temporal lobe, and posterior cingulate gyrus, were activated more by words than nonwords, but these dlexical routeT regions were equally active for irregular and regular words. The results are compatible with both the parallel dual-route model and the triangle model. dLexical routeT regions also showed effects of word imageability. Together with previous imaging studies using semantic task contrasts, the imageability effects are consistent with semantic processing in these brain regions, suggesting that word naming is partly semantically-mediated. D 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Keywords: Word naming; Dual-route model; Triangle model IntroductionThe correspondence between spoken and written forms of a language is not always systematic. While in some alphabetic orthographies the sound of a word can be worked out using rules of pronunciation, in most, there are varying degrees of irregularity in the mapping between print and sound. In English, for example, Bernard Shaw pointed out that the word ''fish'' could be written ghoti if one were mischievous enough to borrow the spelling for /f/ from rough, the spelling of /I/ from women, and the spelling of /sh/ from nation. Words like colonel and yacht are only some of the more extreme examples of such irregularity of pronunciation, which is pervasive in English and is seen in many of its more common words, including some, many, of, the, and word just used in this sentence.While the pronunciation of these dirregularT words would seem to be learned through rote memorization of the whole word, there is...

show abstract

Orthographic processing in visual word recognition: A multiple read-out model.

Cited by 1,022 publications

References 117 publications

Re(de)fining the orthographic neighborhood: The role of addition and deletion neighbors in lexical decision and reading.

Re(de)fining the orthographic neighborhood: The role of addition and deletion neighbors in lexical decision and reading.

Transposed-letter effects in reading: Evidence from eye movements and parafoveal preview.

Some neurophysiological constraints on models of word naming

Contact Info

Product

Resources

About