Parental External Locus of Control in Pregnancy Is Associated with Subsequent Teacher Ratings of Negative Behavior in Primary School: Findings from a British Birth Cohort

Abstract

The purpose of the present study was to examine whether parents’ locus of control (LOC) obtained before the birth of their child predicts the child’s behavior at school in School Years 3 (ages 7–8) and 6 (ages 10–11). A modified version of the adult Nowicki–Strickland internal–external locus of control scale was completed by mothers and fathers in their own home during pregnancy. Externality was defined as a score greater than the median and internality as equal to, or less than, the median. Outcomes were the five individual subscales and the total difficulties of Goodman’s strengths and difficulties’ questionnaire completed by the children’s class teachers at the end of School Years 3 and 6. As predicted, it was found that the greater the presence of externality in the parents, the greater the increased risk of the child’s adverse behavior as rated by teachers. The risk was generally greatest if both parents were external and lowest if both were internal. There was a consistent relationship at both Year 3 and Year 6 between maternal externality in pregnancy and children’s emotional difficulties. However, for other behaviors, the pattern of associations varied depending on whether the mother or father was external, the type of adverse behavior, and the School Year in which children were assessed. Prenatal parental externality appears to be significantly associated with a variety of children’s negative behaviors. Of note was the finding that fathers’ as well as mothers’ LOC was important in determining children’s outcomes. Implications of the complexity of the results for the role parents may play in children’s personality and adjustment are discussed.

Data relating to change in locus of control orientation of parents overtime (from pre-birth to 20 years later), participating in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC)

“…To date there have been ten publications using ALSPAC data on parental LOC, summarized in Table 6 , and include both analyses identifying antecedent factors [25] , [26] , [27] , [28] and consequences [18] , [29] , [30] , [31] , [32] , [33] .…”

“…Main causes of change in LOC (towards externality) were stress in relationships with partners, friends, family, financial stability, job security and illness. Parental LOC 6 years later Nowicki et al [32] Prenatal parental LOC Teacher rated SDQ measured in School Years 3 and 6 by the class teacher Greatest risk of negative behavior if both parents external, least risk if both internal. The pattern of associations varied depending on whether mother or father external, type of adverse behavior and school year.…”

Effect of parental attributes on the locus of control of secondary school students

“…Prenatal parental externality results in negative behaviors of their children especially when both parents are externally oriented. Prenatal maternal externality leads towards emotional difficulties (Nowicki et al, 2018a) and lower abilities in mathematics and science reasoning of children (Golding et al, 2019).…”

“…Parents affect the personality and adjustment of their children (Nowicki et al, 2018a). Parental warmth is associated with internal LoC (Carton & Nowicki, 1994).…”

The Pattern of Stability and Change in Parental Locus of Control Over 6 Years and Teacher Ratings of Child Behavior

“…To evaluate whether the association of prenatal parent externality with negative children’s outcomes extended into later childhood, Nowicki et al (2018b) compared teacher ratings of students’ emotion and behavior difficulties using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) ( Goodman, 1997 , 2001 ) in School Years 3 and 6. Generally, prenatal parent externality was positively associated with a greater number of difficulties.…”