“…LSAs wield tremendous power in education. LSAs used for international comparisons such as PISA affect educational policies and practices, fuel furor in the medium, pressure politicians and education leaders, and stir up emotions in the public globally (Baird et al, 2016;Bieber & Martens, 2011;Pereyra, Kotthoff, & Cowen, 2011;Schleicher, 2018;Zhao, 2016b). LSAs used for accountability such as state accountability assessment in the U.S. command the attention of the public and media, dictate curriculum and pedagogy, change lives of educators (including sending some to prison), and affect the fate of schools (Jennings & Bearak, 2014;McMurrer, 2007;Nichols & Berliner, 2007;Reback, Rockoff, & Schwartz, 2011;Wong, Wing, & Martin, 2016 each year, direct teaching and learning in and outside schools, and define the culture of education (Cheng, 2011;Choi & Park, 2013;Ho, 2003;Zhao, 2014).…”