Positive and reverse placebo effects as a function of differences in cues used in self-perception.

Abstract

Both positive and reverse placebo effects have been observed frequently but not consistently in the past. Based on a self-perception analysis of placebo responses, it was predicted that positive placebo effects would occur in individuals whose self-perceptions tended to be based on situational rather than self-produced information, whereas reverse placebo effects would be expected in subjects more responsive to self-produced cues. Subjects were designated self-produced cue responders if their reports of emotional state were affected by manipulation of their facial expressions and situational cue responders if they were unaffected by expression manipulations. As predicted, the situational cue group was less afraid of snakes and electric shocks when given a placebo described as a relaxer and more afraid when given an arouser placebo. Subjects more responsive to self-produced cues showed the reverse placebo effect and were more afraid when given a relaxer placebo and less afraid when given an arouser.There is no doubt that patients often obtain relief from substances or procedures that are actually inert but are described as potent or effective medicine, that is, placebos. Placebos are probably as much a part of successful medical treatment as many pharmaceutically active drugs, particularly in the treatment of pain and affective disorders (Beecher, 1955;Dinnerstein, Lowenthal, & Blitz, 1966; Lowinger & Dobie, J969).Placebos may be especially useful as substitutes for drugs whose negative side effects outweigh potential benefits or in cases in which a drug's potential benefit does not exceed that of a placebo. For example, in some instances placebos may be substituted for narcotic agents when treating pain or anxiety, thus minimizing the possibility of addiction. In addition, placebos may be prescribed when no generally effective medicine exists. Thus, there is growing recognition that for many

Premenstrual Syndrome and Misattribution: A Self-Perception, Individual Differences Perspective

“…In one study, this led to a "reverse" placebo effect (Duncan & Laird, 1980), and in another to a negative impact on self-esteem because of comparison with a positive stan-dard (Wilcox & Laird, 2000). Specifically, we expected that in the Unreminded condition, women who were responsive to Personal Cues and were in their premenstrual week, would report more negative feelings and less positive feelings than women not in their premenstrual week, whereas women who were unresponsive to Personal Cues would not differ as a function of where they were in their menstrual cycle.…”

“…For example, people who are induced to adopt facial expressions or postures of various emotions feel the corresponding emotions (Duclos et al, 1989), and people feel romantic attraction if they exchange mutual gazes (Kellerman, Lewis, & Laird, 1989;Williams & Kleinke, 1993). A lesser but still substantial number of studies has shown that preventing emotional behavior reduces the intensity of emotional experience (e.g., Duncan & Laird, 1980;Hazaleus & Deffenbacher, 1986;Laird et al, 1994). For example, increases in arousal lead to increased intensity of experiences of fear, anger, and passionate love (see Laird & Bresler, 1992;& Foster, Witcher, Campbell, & Green, 1998, for reviews).…”

Goal Activation, Expectations, and the Placebo Effect.

“…Researchers thus studied potential moderating variables. This subsequent work revealed that reverse placebo effects are likely to occur on secondary assessment measures (i.e., measures of participants' belief about their underlying condition), when the expected internal state is parallel to one's actual state, and when individuals are closely examining their internal feeling state and the cause of those feelings (J. W. Duncan & Laird, 1980;Girodo, 1973;Ross & Olson, 1981). On the basis of the present studies, we believe that in addition to moderating traditional placebo effects, nonconscious goals moderate reverse placebo effects.…”

FACES—A database of facial expressions in young, middle-aged, and older women and men: Development and validation

“…The manual also contained sample pictures of a young man's face, taken from the PoFA, displaying each of the facial expressions in a prototypical way (neutrality, WF2-5;happiness, WF2-12;sadness, WF3-28;disgust, WF3-11;surprise, WF2-16;fear, WF3-16;anger, WF3-4;Ekman & Friesen, 1976). Even though evidence suggests that facial expression of an emotion triggers experience of the emotion (Coan, Allen, & Harmon-Jones, 2001;Duncan & Laird, 1980;Strack, Martin, & Stepper, 1988), the face models were told that the aim was not necessarily to actually experience the emotion but, rather, to optimally show it on the face so that other persons could recognize it. They were instructed to display each facial expression as intensively as possible, but in a natural-looking way.…”