Qualitative and health-related evaluation of point-of-use water treatment equipment performance in three cities of Iran

Abstract

Background Application of the point-of-use water treatment (POU-WT) systems has consistently increased during the last decade in Iran. In this study, the qualitative performances of reverse osmosis-based POU devices in selected cities of Iran were investigated. Methods This applied- descriptive study was conducted in three cities of Tehran, Rasht, and Ahvaz in 2016 (selected based on the level of POU devices sale index in three phases). After choosing the most popular five brands of six stages POU devices, 360 water sampling zones and POU consumer households of the selected cities were measured. Also, the awareness of the consumers about POU-WT systems selection and performance was investigated through a designed questionnaire. Results The qualitative parameters in the three cities were acceptable ( p < 0.05) for tap water (except for EC in Ahvaz), the output water were as follows: pH = 6.05–7.5, EC = 49.8–58.2 μs/cm, TOC = 0.01–0.23 mg/L and Nitrate = 0.52–4.5 mg/LNO 3 (lower or within the range of regulatory limits), Total Hardness = 33–41.5 mg/L and Fluoride = 0.01–0.23 mg/L (which were lower than the admissible limit, with p < 0.05), HPC values were in the range of 543–676 CFU/mL, which exceeded the regulatory level. Results of ANOVA analysis showed significant differences between the selected cities. The results of the questionnaire survey showed that the dissatisfaction of tap water quality and health-related concerns were the two main reasons for household POU-WT systems; awareness levels of 64% of these households about the performances of their POU systems were weak. Also, social media were mostly used by POU-WT users for brand selected. Conclusion Based on the results of the tap-water quality application of POU-WT systems are not recommended in Tehran and Rasht, and regarding the outputs of these systems, side effects of softened water, lack of Fluoride and a remarkable increase of the number of bacteria should be considered. In Ahvaz, application of POU-WT systems can decrease the health-related problems and it is necessary to increase the access to read POU-WT efficiency information for the consumers.

Basics of systems approach to methodology of assessing waterworks facili-ties on natural environment

“…According to the EIA surveys in the course of building the set of hydraulic engineering structures of the Zelenchukskaya HPP-PSPP within the spatial confines of the Upper Cuban basin geosystem (Wb.g.=113,300 km³, Wercr=3 300 km³, Fwat.terr.=11,000 km²), there was no intrabasin runoff distribution in the past but there is one now and the redistributed runoff can be used to a fuller extent for power generation in the future, which stipulates the phenomenon of irretrievability (Khetsuriani et al, 2019;Bondarenko et al, 2007Bondarenko et al, , 2009Bondarenko et al, , 2019Budyko & Avakyan, 1977;Budyko & Drozdov, 1950;Methodological Approaches to Environmental Regulation, 1996 Chernyaev, 1999;Bondarenko et al, 2009;Mosaferi et al, 2014;Rezaeinia et al, 2018;Aazami et al, 2015) that must be considered in making the EIA of the OA as part of the NENV-OA-PPL NES.…”

“…The methodology of the EIA of OA considers the system principles of interaction and relations among these objects, the structural abiotic and biotic formations of the NENV, and the vital interests of the PPL as part of the NENV-OA-PPL NES active within the spatial confines of the basin geosystem and treated as an integrated, dynamic, open, sustainably nonequilibrium system with natural and technogenic structural formations involved in continuous self-organization (Khetsuriani, Bondarenko and Yliasov 2019;Bondarenko, Yliasov and Khetsuriani 2019;Bondarenko, Privalenko, Kuvalkin et al 2009;Prigogine and Nicolis 1977;Regulation for Organizing and Carrying Out National Environmental Monitoring 2003;Chernyaev 1999;Chernyaev 1998;Guideline for Chemical Analysis...1977;Rumyantsev and Kozlov 1999;Fashchevskiy 1989;Federal Law 174-FZ On Environmental Appraisal 1995;Bondarenko, Dyachenko, Gutenev and Fedoryan 2009;Mosaferi, Pourakbar, Shakerkhatibi et al 2014;Rezaeinia, Nasseri, Binesh et al 2018;Aazami, Esmaili-Sari, Abdoli et al 2015).…”

“…In the considered ENV-OA-PPL class of NES the prevalence of Еfree, that is capable of ordering structural formations and making them more complex, over Еbound, uncapable of doing any kind of work, forms the trend for the continuity of self-organization in the structural formations of these NES, where the natural environment continues to play the main role. The prevalence of bound (low-quality) energy of stream over Еfree results in the trend for an increasing entropy within the considered ENV-OA-PPL NES and thus in a decline in functional efficiency and gradual degradation (Bondarenko, Skibin, Azarov, Semenova and Privalenko VV 2016;Bondarenko, Klimenko, Semenova and Nikolaenko 2016;Khetsuriani, Bondarenko and Yliasov 2019;Bondarenko, Yliasov and Khetsuriani 2019;Bondarenko, Privalenko, Kuvalkin et al 2009;Bondarenko, Gutenev, Privalenko and Polyakov 2007;Bondarenko, Privalenko, Kuvalkin et al 2009;Budyko and Avakyan 1977;Budyko and Drozdov 1950;Methodological Approaches to Environmental Regulation...1996;Chernyaev 1998;Guideline for Chemical Analysis...1977;Rumyantsev and Kozlov 1999;Fashchevskiy 1989;Federal Law 174-FZ On Environmental Appraisal 1995;Bondarenko, Dyachenko, Gutenev and Fedoryan 2009;Mosaferi, Pourakbar, Shakerkhatibi et al 2014;Rezaeinia, Nasseri, Binesh et al 2018;Aazami, Esmaili-Sari, Abdoli et al 2015). This is why, one of the main components of the methodology of the EIA of OA as part of the ENV-OA-PPL class of NES is enviromental acceptability (EA) that is a certain copy of the natural system in terms of changing forms of energy with the trend for slower entropy growth, which is ensured by the structural fineness of the building as part of the OA.…”

“…The EIA methodology uses the system approach for studying the interaction and relations among the main technogenic component (OA), the components of the NENV, and the vital interests of the local PPL as part of the NENV-OA-PPL NES that functions within the considered basin geosystem. In the system approach this NES is treated as an integrated, dynamic, open, sustainably nonequilibrium system with natural and technogenic structural formations involved in continuous self-organization (Khetsuriani et al, 2019;Bondarenko, et al 2007Bondarenko, et al , 2009Bondarenko, et al , 2019Budyko & Avakyan, 1977;Mosaferi, Pourakbar, Shakerkhatibi et al 2014;Rezaeinia et al 2018;Aazami, et al, 2015). Hierarchically, basin geosystems of higher levels affect the structural changes in the self-organization of basin geosystems of lower levels.…”

Multifunctional Antibacterial Materials for the Control of Hazardous Microbes and Chemicals: A Review

“…was responsible for 57% of outbreaks and 13% of illnesses in the United States . Today, more people tend to use point of use (POU) systems at the household level or at point of entry (POE) systems at the community level as the secondary treatment of drinking water in pursuit of higher-quality and safer water. − …”