Raman spectroscopy of graphene-based materials and its applications in related devices

Abstract

Graphene-based materials exhibit remarkable electronic, optical, and mechanical properties, which has resulted in both high scientific interest and huge potential for a variety of applications. Furthermore, the family of graphene-based materials is growing because of developments in preparation methods. Raman spectroscopy is a versatile tool to identify and characterize the chemical and physical properties of these materials, both at the laboratory and mass-production scale. This technique is so important that most of the papers published concerning these materials contain at least one Raman spectrum. Thus, here, we systematically review the developments in Raman spectroscopy of graphene-based materials from both fundamental research and practical (i.e., device applications) perspectives. We describe the essential Raman scattering processes of the entire first- and second-order modes in intrinsic graphene. Furthermore, the shear, layer-breathing, G and 2D modes of multilayer graphene with different stacking orders are discussed. Techniques to determine the number of graphene layers, to probe resonance Raman spectra of monolayer and multilayer graphenes and to obtain Raman images of graphene-based materials are also presented. The extensive capabilities of Raman spectroscopy for the investigation of the fundamental properties of graphene under external perturbations are described, which have also been extended to other graphene-based materials, such as graphene quantum dots, carbon dots, graphene oxide, nanoribbons, chemical vapor deposition-grown and SiC epitaxially grown graphene flakes, composites, and graphene-based van der Waals heterostructures. These fundamental properties have been used to probe the states, effects, and mechanisms of graphene materials present in the related heterostructures and devices. We hope that this review will be beneficial in all the aspects of graphene investigations, from basic research to material synthesis and device applications.

Investigating the Integrity of Graphene towards the Electrochemical Oxygen Evolution Reaction

“…RHE), however, upon inspection of the Raman profile one can observe the presence of a graphene D band ( ca . 1350 cm −1 ) that corresponds to defects in the lattice structure; similar to that observed in graphene quantum dots (QDT: sometimes also called nanographene) or ozonolyzed CVD graphene . Sample 4 (Figure S to X) shows a large damaged area after holding 1.61 V ( vs .…”

Medium Modulated Oxygen Reduction Activity of Fe/Co Active Centre‐engrafted Electrocatalysts

“…[28][29] In the XRD 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 pattern of Fe/2CoÀ N-GVC, two peaks lying closely at the 2θ values of 43.8 and 44.8°are observed; these peaks are assigned to the FeN x and CoN x phases which are expected since the composite contains both Fe and Co as the metal precursors during its synthesis. [35] The I D /I G ratio calculated for the different samples follows the order: VC (1.28) > N-VC (1.12) > N-GVC (1.04). [33] The carbon framework plays a crucial role in the modulation of the catalytic activity.…”

Porous carbon nanospheres with moderately oriented domains for EDLC electrode

“…Base on the above‐mentioned characterization, the moderately oriented domains like carbon anions are introduced in CNS3, which will be of benefit for the high e‐conductivity of CNS3 and be attested by the following tests. In Raman spectra (shown in Figure (a)), the intensity ratio of the D band to G band ( I D / I G ) is inversely proportional to the amount of sp 2 ‐bonding carbon, which is usually used to indicate the degree of order in carbon materials . Compared with SPs‐70‐3, the smaller I D / I G value of CNS3 means the higher degree of order.…”