Review of ways to transport natural gas energy from countries which do not need the gas for domestic use

Erosion Behaviour of API X100 Pipeline Steel at Various Impact Angles and Particle Speeds

“…Petroleum products are transported from one region to another through complicated pipeline networks [1,2]. Different grades of carbon steel are used as pipeline materials as they are required to withstand high-pressure environmental conditions [3,4].…”

Natural Gas Transport

“…The capital cost of a pipeline depends upon factors such as pipe diameter, distance, terrain, onshore or off shore, and the amount of compression required. In general terms, the cost associated to a pipeline project is between $600,000 dollars and $4 million dollars per kilometer (Thomas, 2003) being offshore pipelines assumed to be 50% more expensive to build than onshore pipelines (Lochner, 2008). In some countries, like Australia and Russia, pipelines can be laid over vast distances at a low cost; this is due to the low disturbance, low right-of-way (ROW) charges and relatively accessible terrain.…”

“…The Votrans system uses large diameter pipes in an insulated cold storage unit, carrying the gas at low temperatures (-30 0 C) allowing lower pressures to be used than the ones required for ambient storage (Cano, 2005). Votrans could transport up to 2Bscf of natural gas by ship (Thomas, 2003), Several studies demonstrate that it would be reduced the amount of steel required for the container if the temperature is kept at lower values, for instance, for a lean gas, a Votrans steel container at a containment temperature around -30 0 C and high pressure, the wall thickness requirement is roughly half of that at high pressure at ambient temperature . The GTM is a light weight composite reinforced pressure vessel that is based upon technology that has been used in CNG vehicle fuel tanks for over 20 years The GTM system is made from a high-strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steel pipe, wrapped with composites.…”

“…If NGH is produced synthetically, the first step is generally achieved by mixing gas and water under hydrate formation conditions, it implies temperatures between 1 0 C and 10 0 C and pressures from 1100 to 1450 psi (Thomas, 2003); the result is a water crystalline ice like substance where the natural gas components stabilize the hydrogen bonds within water. Because one of the disadvantages of the gas hydrate is the rate in which gas hydrate is formed, sometimes in order to increase the hydrate formation, surfactants can be added to the solution.…”

Natural gas hydrate promotion capabilities of toluene sulfonic acid isomers

“…Storage of natural gas in the form of clathrate hydrates is of interest since hydrates can be produced under moderate conditions and can be stored at a typical temperature of 273 K under reasonable pressures of 1-2 MPa 5, 6 . In contrast, the conditions for conventional natural gas storage technologies are extreme, for example, the pressure of 20 MPa for compressed natural gas and temperature of 113 K for liquefi ed natural gas 7 . As well as in transport, it showed a big cost saving of 24% for the transport of natural gas in hydrates compared to liquefi ed natural gas 8 .…”