“…However, providing efficient last-mile delivery services is challenging, not least because customers have come to expect rapid deliveries within narrow time-windows. In most places, delivery services are fragmented and delivery speeds are affected by shipment size, traffic congestion, inclement weather, hilly or broken topography, and built environment barriers ( Alvarez-Palau, Calvet-Liñán, Viu-Roig, Gandouz, & Juan, 2021 ; Cant, 2020 ; Cárdenas, Beckers, & Vanelslander, 2017 ; Huang, 2021 ). Where last-mile delivery services are chaotic, cities experience more congestion, pollution, and crashes ( Edwards, McKinnon, & Cullinane, 2010 ; Ranieri, Digiesi, Silvestri, & Roccotelli, 2018 ; Rusli et al, 2022 ).…”