Shot noise statistics and information theory of sensitivity limits in frequency-modulated continuous-wave ladar

Barber, Zeb W.; Dahl, Jason R.; Sharpe, Tia; Erkmen, Baris I.

doi:10.1364/josaa.30.001335

Cited by 28 publications

(9 citation statements)

References 16 publications

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“…Such consistent performance will provide significant assistance in FMCW lidar applications, which will be discussed in detail later. We modelled a fiber based self-heterodyne FMCW lidar system using mechanical scanning mirrors [16]. As depicted in Figure 7, the modulated output light from the sweeping laser source is boosted using EDFA and further split into a signal path and a local-oscillator (LO) path using a 90/10 fiber splitter.…”

Section: Figures 4 and 5 Shows The Bias-dependent O-e Frequency Responses Of Device A Measured Under Low (1 µW)mentioning

confidence: 99%

High-Power and High-Responsivity Avalanche Photodiodes for Self-Heterodyne FMCW Lidar System Applications

et al. 2021

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In this work, we demonstrate the high-power and high-responsivity performance of the dual multiplication (M-) layers in In0.52 Al0.48 As based avalanche photodiode (APD). The dual M-layer design in our APD structure effectively constrains the multiplication process to a thin high-field region rather than the whole thick M-layer. It thus minimizes the space charge effect (SCE) within and avoids increasing the tunneling dark current for the case of directly shrinking M-layer thickness in APD. Furthermore, by combining the specially designed mesa shape with this dual M-layer structure, the edge breakdown can be well suppressed. These benefits lead to an ultra-high gain-bandwidth product (450 GHz; 1 A/W at unit gain) and a high saturation current (>12 mA) can be simultaneously achieved in our device. By nonlinearly driving a wavelength sweeping laser in the self-heterodyne lidar setup, it can generate an optical pulse train-like waveform, providing an effective optical modulation depth of 200% to feed into our demonstrated APD at the receiver-end. Under such scheme, the photo-generated RF (1 GHz) power from our APD with a 6.3 A/W responsivity can be as high as +6.95 dBm at a high (7 mA) output photocurrent. Such high-power and highresponsivity characteristics of our APD can further improve the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio and dynamic range performances in each pixel of the lidar image. A high-quality 3-dimensional (D) FMCW lidar image is constructed based on our APD, without the integration of any electrical amplifier at the receiver end.

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Section: Figures 4 and 5 Shows The Bias-dependent O-e Frequency Responses Of Device A Measured Under Low (1 µW)mentioning

confidence: 99%

High-Power and High-Responsivity Avalanche Photodiodes for Self-Heterodyne FMCW Lidar System Applications

et al. 2021

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“…Frequency-Modulated Coherent Wave (FMCW) detection is a well-established measurement technique used in many fields, such as optical coherence tomography and LiDAR. While FMCW is explained by classical field theory 1 , understanding its operation at the quantum-mechanical level presents challenges. One significant challenge in FMCW LiDAR is that it has the capability of detecting single photons, but the detection is based on frequency, which changes over time.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Contradictions between a Quantum-Mechanical Model of the photon and the Detection Principle of FMCW Measurements

Malz

2023

Preprint

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This article presents a study that provides robust evidence supporting the continuity of the electromagnetic field, while highlighting contradictions between a quantum-mechanical model of the photon and the detection principle of Frequency-Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) measurements. The primary objective was to investigate the detection method of FMCW for extremely weak signals, reaching energy levels akin to photons. Through thorough examination, significant contradictions emerged, favoring classical field theory and challenging the notion of electromagnetic field quantization. To strengthen this claim, a carefully designed experiment was conducted to measure sub-photon energy levels. The comprehensive analysis of both theoretical insights and experimental data presents compelling evidence, demonstrating the untenability of a quantized model for the electromagnetic field. These findings have profound implications for understanding the continuity of the electromagnetic field, prompting further exploration in this field of research.

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“…This measurement results support the conclusion that it would be advantageous to use our novel multiple M-layer design in an APD to facilitate a lower effective critical field for avalanche breakdown. Figure 10 shows the fiber-based FMCW LiDAR system with mechanical scanning mirrors 28 that was built to test the feasibility of our APDs for coherent FMCW LiDAR applications. The modulated output light from the sweeping laser source is amplified with EDFA and then split into a signal and a local-oscillator (LO) channel with a 90/10 fiber splitter.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Avalanche photodiodes with multiple multiplication layers for coherent detection

Ahmad

Wang

Naseem

et al. 2022

Sci Rep

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We demonstrate a novel avalanche photodiode (APD) design which fundamentally relaxes the trade-off between responsivity and saturation-current performance at receiver end in coherent system. Our triple In0.52Al0.48As based multiplication (M-) layers with a stepped electric (E-) field inside has more pronounced avalanche process with significantly less effective critical-field than the dual M-layer. Reduced E-field in active M-layers ensures stronger E-field allocation to the thick absorption-layer with a smaller breakdown voltage (Vbr) resulting in less serious space-charge screening effect, less device heating at high output photocurrent. Compared to the dual M-layer reference sample, the demonstrated APD exhibits lower punch-through (− 9 vs. − 24 V)/breakdown voltages (− 43 vs. − 51 V), higher responsivity (19.6 vs. 13.5 A/W), higher maximum gain (230 vs. 130), and higher 1-dB saturation-current (> 5.6 vs. 2.5 mA) under 0.95 Vbr operation. Extremely high saturation-current (> 14.6 mA), high responsivity (7.3 A/W), and decent O-E bandwidth (1.4 GHz) can be simultaneously achieved using the demonstrated APD with a 200 µm active window diameter. In coherent FMCW LiDAR test bed, this novel APD exhibits a larger signal-to-noise ratio and high-quality 3-D images than the reference dual M-layer and high-performance commercial p-i-n PD modules, while requiring significantly less optical local-oscillator (LO) power (0.5 vs 4 mW).

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Shot noise statistics and information theory of sensitivity limits in frequency-modulated continuous-wave ladar

Cited by 28 publications

References 16 publications

High-Power and High-Responsivity Avalanche Photodiodes for Self-Heterodyne FMCW Lidar System Applications

High-Power and High-Responsivity Avalanche Photodiodes for Self-Heterodyne FMCW Lidar System Applications

Contradictions between a Quantum-Mechanical Model of the photon and the Detection Principle of FMCW Measurements

Avalanche photodiodes with multiple multiplication layers for coherent detection

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