Specific food structures supress appetite through reduced gastric emptying rate

Abstract

The aim of this study was to determine the extent to which gastric layering and retention of a meal could be used to reduce appetite using the same caloric load. Liquid (control) and semi-solid (active) meals were produced with the same protein, fat, carbohydrate, and mass. These were fed to 10 volunteers on separate days in a crossover study, and subjective appetite ratings, gastric contents, and plasma cholecystokinin (CCK) were assessed over a period of 3 h. The active meal showed food boluses in the stomach persisting for ~45 min, slower emptying rates, and lower plasma CCK levels over the first hour. After the first hour, both gastric emptying rates and plasma CCK levels were similar for both systems and slightly increased compared with the unfed situation. Despite the lower plasma CCK levels for the active meal over the first hour, this meal reduced appetite more than the control meal over the 3 h of the study. For a moderately increased plasma CCK level in the fed state, appetite was correlated with the volume of gastric contents rather than gastric emptying rates or plasma CCK. This suggests that enhanced gastric retention was the key factor in decreasing appetite and was probably mediated by a combination of intestinal nutrient sensing and increased viscosity in the stomach.

Effects of food form on appetite and energy balance

“…These studies reveal less viscous liquids empty faster than more viscous liquids (Bennink et al, 1999;Cassady et al, 2012;Kawasaki et al, 2008;Mackie, Rafiee, Malcolm, Salt, & van Aken, 2013;Malagelada et al, 1984;Zhu, Hsu, & Hollis, 2013a). The slower emptying rate of solids and thicker foods, leaving more food volume in the stomach, is often observed concurrently with lower hunger and higher fullness ratings (Cassady et al, 2012;Mackie et al, 2013;Zhu et al, 2013a). However, the consumption of mixed meals complicates the analysis of gastric emptying, as solids influence the rate of liquid emptying and vice versa (Kong & Singh, 2008).…”

“…Still others show no differences between solid and liquid foods (Brynes et al, 1998;Tieken et al, 2007). Current data on secretion of cholecystokinin are mixed, with some data showing no effect of solid compared to liquid food consumption (Cassady et al, 2012;Tieken et al, 2007) while others indicate small initial increases in CCK for liquid foods compared to semi-solid foods (Mackie et al, 2013) or for mixed solid-liquid compared to homogenized meals (Santangelo et al, 1998). Part of the reason for these conflicting results may be that differences due to food form for cognitive impressions, orosensory exposure, and gastric emptying rates occur before any chyme is delivered to the intestine, and so these effects are already influencing appetitive responses.…”

Dairy food structures influence the rates of nutrient digestion through different in vitro gastric behaviour

“…The in vivo study also found that these differences in fullness were 615 prolonged after 2 hours suggesting that the impact of the high caloric chyme initially emptied 616 was not only on satiation but satiety could also be affected. However, we could not correlate 617 the high levels of nutrients in the last point of digestion from liquid sample with the satiety 618 responses seen in in vivo (Mackie, et al, 2013) because the clinical measurements were not 619 taken for long enough to detect any distinct peak related to this high caloric-content fraction.…”

“…in the text, according to a pre-set curve based on in vivo study data using the same dairy 198 systems (Mackie, et al, 2013). Figure 1 shows the volume contained in the gastric vessel at Table 1.…”

Human Gastric Simulator (Riddet Model)

“…Signifi cant efforts have been made during the last decade to better understand the overall functioning of the human stomach and to develop a new generation of in vitro models of enhanced biochemical and mechanical relevance (Boulby et al 1999 ;Faas et al 2002 ;Kunz et al 2005 ;Goetze et al 2007Goetze et al , 2009Kwiatek et al 2006 ;Marciani et al 2001aMarciani et al , 2007Marciani et al , 2012Marciani 2011 ;Schwizer et al 2002Schwizer et al , 2006Steingoetter et al 2005 ;Treier et al 2006 ;Mackie et al 2013 ). More notably among those models are the TNO and DGM systems discussed in the previous sections.…”