“…The central role of this behavior might explain the recent increase in academic interest in this specific student behavior. Several studies reported positive relationships between observed hand-raising behavior and student achievement with small to moderate effect sizes reported for elementary schools and secondary schools (Böheim, Urdan, et al, 2020;Decristan et al, 2020Decristan et al, , 2023Schnitzler et al, 2021). Other studies found that aspects of instructional quality, such as perceived cognitive activation (r = .08; Jansen et al, 2022), socioemotional support (r = .31; Böheim, Urdan, et al, 2020), and time on task (r = .09; Jansen et al, 2022) were related to student-guided participation (specifically hand raising) in secondary schools.…”