TDC Array Tradeoffs in Current and Upcoming Digital SiPM Detectors for Time-of-Flight PET

Tetrault, M.-A.; Therrien, Audrey Corbeil; Lemaire, William; Fontaine, R.; Pratte, J.‐F.

doi:10.1109/tns.2017.2665878

Cited by 19 publications

(11 citation statements)

References 25 publications

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“…Limited by real estate, most 2D architectures rely on queuing theory to implement time-to-digital conversion within groups of SPADs [ 142 , 143 ]. Although this was shown to be functional, the ultimate coincidence timing resolution (CTR) can only be met by using one TDC per SPAD or per small group of SPAD-QC pairs to maximize the probability to timestamp the firsts prompt photons [ 144 ]. In theory, one TDC per SPAD-QC seems the best choice since it allows for correction of the timing skew of each pixel of a SPAD-QC-TDC.…”

Section: Perspective Of 3d Pdc For Radiation Instrumentationmentioning

confidence: 99%

3D Photon-To-Digital Converter for Radiation Instrumentation: Motivation and Future Works

Pratte

Nolet

Parent

et al. 2021

Sensors

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Analog and digital SiPMs have revolutionized the field of radiation instrumentation by replacing both avalanche photodiodes and photomultiplier tubes in many applications. However, multiple applications require greater performance than the current SiPMs are capable of, for example timing resolution for time-of-flight positron emission tomography and time-of-flight computed tomography, and mitigation of the large output capacitance of SiPM array for large-scale time projection chambers for liquid argon and liquid xenon experiments. In this contribution, the case will be made that 3D photon-to-digital converters, also known as 3D digital SiPMs, have a potentially superior performance over analog and 2D digital SiPMs. A review of 3D photon-to-digital converters is presented along with various applications where they can make a difference, such as time-of-flight medical imaging systems and low-background experiments in noble liquids. Finally, a review of the key design choices that must be made to obtain an optimized 3D photon-to-digital converter for radiation instrumentation, more specifically the single-photon avalanche diode array, the CMOS technology, the quenching circuit, the time-to-digital converter, the digital signal processing and the system level integration, are discussed in detail.

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Section: Perspective Of 3d Pdc For Radiation Instrumentationmentioning

confidence: 99%

3D Photon-To-Digital Converter for Radiation Instrumentation: Motivation and Future Works

Pratte

Nolet

Parent

et al. 2021

Sensors

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“…Since PDE is the product of the PDP and the fill factor, designers are forced to implement SPAD pitches from 30 to 60

—while keeping the quenching and logic area as small as possible—to achieve fill factors ranging from 50 to 70% [ 7 , 22 ] in order to maximize light detection. The use of PDE as a reference in PET-TOF scanners is further motivated by the fact that the uncertainty in determining the arrival time of the gamma photon is strongly limited by the number of detected photons rather than being dominated by the SPAD jitter or the single shot precision of the time to digital converter (TDC) [ 23 , 24 ]. Despite the relevance of the active area for these sensors, the fill factor losses due to defective SPADs—the ones that must be turned off due to their noise—are not usually considered during the design.…”

Section: Trade-offs In Sipm Design For Pet and Spectmentioning

confidence: 99%

Architecture-Level Optimization on Digital Silicon Photomultipliers for Medical Imaging

Bandi

Ilisie

Vornicu

et al. 2021

Sensors

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Silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs) are arrays of single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) connected in parallel. Analog silicon photomultipliers are built in custom technologies optimized for detection efficiency. Digital silicon photomultipliers are built in CMOS technology. Although CMOS SPADs are less sensitive, they can incorporate additional functionality at the sensor plane, which is required in some applications for an accurate detection in terms of energy, timestamp, and spatial location. This additional circuitry comprises active quenching and recharge circuits, pulse combining and counting logic, and a time-to-digital converter. This, together with the disconnection of defective SPADs, results in a reduction of the light-sensitive area. In addition, the pile-up of pulses, in space and in time, translates into additional efficiency losses that are inherent to digital SiPMs. The design of digital SiPMs must include some sort of optimization of the pixel architecture in order to maximize sensitivity. In this paper, we identify the most relevant variables that determine the influence of SPAD yield, fill factor loss, and spatial and temporal pile-up in the photon detection efficiency. An optimum of 8% is found for different pixel sizes. The potential benefits of molecular imaging of these optimized and small-sized pixels with independent timestamping capabilities are also analyzed.

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“…One promising route to improve SiPM intrinsic timing resolution is to parallelize the readout of all microcells and incorporating timing circuitry for each individual microcell (or small regions of microcells) [125, 126]. Although the timing performance of the entire SiPM would still be affected by other sources such as optical cross-talk and PDE, this type of readout would be highly beneficial in supporting further improvements in timing resolution.…”

Section: Detectorsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…For example, the use of an extremely fast and sensitive photodetector becomes critically important to efficiently use prompt Cerenkov photons for ultimate timing. Further, it has recently been shown that the use of a statistical estimator to estimate timing from multiple time stamps from a prompt timing source leads to larger improvements in timing resolution compared with scintillation-based timing [125], and may be a major enabling component in the effort to achieve a timing resolution of tens of picoseconds.…”

Section: Detectorsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Innovations in Instrumentation for Positron Emission Tomography

Berg

Cherry

2018

Seminars in Nuclear Medicine

101

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PET scanners are sophisticated and highly sensitive biomedical imaging devices that can produce highly quantitative images showing the 3-dimensional distribution of radiotracers inside the body. PET scanners are commonly integrated with x-ray CT or MRI scanners in hybrid devices that can provide both molecular imaging (PET) and anatomical imaging (CT or MRI). Despite decades of development, significant opportunities still exist to make major improvements in the performance of PET systems for a variety of clinical and research tasks. These opportunities stem from new ideas and concepts, as well as a range of enabling technologies and methodologies. In this paper, we review current state of the art in PET instrumentation, detectors and systems, describe the major limitations in PET as currently practiced, and offer our own personal insights into some of the recent and emerging technological innovations that we believe will impact the field. Our focus is on the technical aspects of PET imaging, specifically detectors and system design, and the opportunity and necessity to move closer to PET systems for diagnostic patient use and in vivo biomedical research that truly approach the physical performance limits while remaining mindful of imaging time, radiation dose, and cost. However, other key endeavors, which are not covered here, including innovations in reconstruction and modeling methodology, radiotracer development, and expanding the range of clinical and research applications, also will play an equally important, if not more important, role in defining the future of the field.

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TDC Array Tradeoffs in Current and Upcoming Digital SiPM Detectors for Time-of-Flight PET

Cited by 19 publications

References 25 publications

3D Photon-To-Digital Converter for Radiation Instrumentation: Motivation and Future Works

3D Photon-To-Digital Converter for Radiation Instrumentation: Motivation and Future Works

Architecture-Level Optimization on Digital Silicon Photomultipliers for Medical Imaging

Innovations in Instrumentation for Positron Emission Tomography

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