The disinfection of swimming pool waters. I. Comparison of iodine and chlorine as swimming pool disinfectants.

Black, Andrew P.; Kinman, Riley N.; Keirn, M A; Smith, James J.; Harlan, W E

doi:10.2105/ajph.60.3.535

Cited by 15 publications

(9 citation statements)

References 15 publications

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“…The U.S. Public Health Service approved the use of iodination for pool disinfection in 1962 (18). Iodophor is commonly used to disinfect glassware in restaurants and bars.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Comparison of Byproduct Formation in Waters Treated with Chlorine and Iodine: Relevance to Point-of-Use Treatment

Smith

Plewa

Lindell

et al. 2010

Environ. Sci. Technol.

122

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Due to their efficacy in deactivating a range of microbial pathogens, particularly amoebic cysts, iodine-based disinfectants have been a popular option for point-of-use (POU) drinking water disinfection by campers, the military, and rural consumers in developing countries. Recently, concerns regarding the formation of cytotoxic and genotoxic iodinated disinfection byproducts (I-DBPs) have arisen during chloramine disinfection of iodide-containing waters in the developed world; similar concerns should pertain to iodine-based POU disinfection. Because there are alternative POU disinfection techniques, including chlorine-based disinfectants, this paper compared disinfection byproduct formation from a range of iodine-based disinfectants at their recommended dosages to chlorination and chloramination under overdosing conditions. Just as chloroform was the predominant trihalomethane (THM) forme during chlorination or chloramination, iodoform was the predominant THM formed during iodination. Conditions fostering THM formation were similar between these treatments, except that THM formation during chlorination increased with pH, while it was slightly elevated at circumneutral pH during iodination. Iodoform formation during treatment with iodine tincture was higher than during treatment with iodine tablets. On a molar basis, iodoform formation during treatment with iodine tincture was 20-60% of the formation of chloroform during chlorination, and total organic iodine (TOI) formation was twice that of total organic chlorine (TOCl), despite the 6-fold higher oxidant dose during chlorination. Based upon previous measurements of chronic mammalian cell cytotoxicity for the individual THMs, consumers of two waters treated with iodine tincture would receive the same THM-associated cytotoxic exposure in 4-19 days as a consumer of the same waters treated with a 6-fold higher dose of chlorine over 1 year. Iodoacetic acid, diiodoacetic acid, and other iodo-acids were also formed with iodine tincture treatment, but at levels <11% of iodoform. However, testing of a Lifestraw Personal POU device, which combines an iodinated anion exchange resin with activated carbon post-treatment, indicated minimal formation of I-DBPs and no iodine residual. Although N-nitrosamines have been associated with oxidant contact with anion exchange resins, N-nitrosamine formation rapidly declined to low levels (4 ng/L) using the Lifestraw device after the first few flushes of water.

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“…The U.S. Public Health Service approved the use of iodination for pool disinfection in 1962 (18). Iodophor is commonly used to disinfect glassware in restaurants and bars.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Comparison of Byproduct Formation in Waters Treated with Chlorine and Iodine: Relevance to Point-of-Use Treatment

Smith

Plewa

Lindell

et al. 2010

Environ. Sci. Technol.

122

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“…Iodine has long been regarded an effective disinfectant (1,3,4,11,20), but its mechanism of microbial toxicity is obscure. Although iodine in some ways is superior to chlorine (4, 7, 9), it is used only during emergencies (11).…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Viricidal Capability of Resin-Triiodide Demand-Type Disinfectant

Fina

Hassouna

Horacek

et al. 1982

Appl Environ Microbiol

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Polyoma, Newcastle disease virus, and adenovirus, as well as two coliphages, lambda and T4, were inactivated by strong base quaternary ammonium anionexchange resin-triiodide. Organic matter interfered with viral inactivation capability of the resin-triiodide. The viruses, as they were being inactivated by the resin disinfectant beads, were not retained or filtered by the beads. A strongly basic quaternary ammonium anionexchange resin-triiodide (resin-I3) complex developed in our laboratories proved to be an effective demand-type disinfectant against a wide variety of bacteria (24). The viricidal capability remains in question. Preliminary reports released in 1975 and 1979 (14, 15) tell of viricidal activity, and two papers published in 1980 (16, 21) describe chemical properties of the disinfectant.

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“…Although the cost of iodine exceeds chlorine on a unit basis, it has been estimated that the potential advantages attendant iodination may reduce the cost of swimming pool disinfection by nearly 50% (8). Unfortunately, dependable control of algal proliferation in wellilluminated swimming pools has not been accomplished through use of iodine alone (5,20). Super chlorination and several commercially available algicides, developed to augment the antimicrobial action of chlorine, have been pursued with limited success in control of algae in iodinated pools (5).…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Unfortunately, dependable control of algal proliferation in wellilluminated swimming pools has not been accomplished through use of iodine alone (5,20). Super chlorination and several commercially available algicides, developed to augment the antimicrobial action of chlorine, have been pursued with limited success in control of algae in iodinated pools (5). The apparent lack of knowledge about chemical compounds suitable for antialgal protection of iodinated waters prompted the investigation described in this re-port.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Antialgal substances for iodine-disinfected swimming pools

Nilson¹,

Unz²

1977

Appl Environ Microbiol

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Forty substances were tested for antialgal activity against Chlorella pyrenoidosa (Wis. 2005) and Phormidium inundatum (Wis. 1093). C. pyrenoidosa exhibited greater resistance to adverse effects of test compounds than did P. inundatum. Although several structurally unrelated compounds were inhibitory to both alga species, even at an initial concentration of 1.0 mg/liter, methylthios-triazines, ametryne, prometryne, and terbutryne, at 0.1 mg/liter, restricted growth to less than 25% of control (untreated) cultures. The methylthio-s-triazines were virtually chemically unreactive with free iodine. Inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus by free iodine dosages of 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, and 1.0 mg/liter was unaffected by the presence of 2.0 mg of terbutryne per liter.

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The disinfection of swimming pool waters. I. Comparison of iodine and chlorine as swimming pool disinfectants.

Cited by 15 publications

References 15 publications

Comparison of Byproduct Formation in Waters Treated with Chlorine and Iodine: Relevance to Point-of-Use Treatment

Comparison of Byproduct Formation in Waters Treated with Chlorine and Iodine: Relevance to Point-of-Use Treatment

Viricidal Capability of Resin-Triiodide Demand-Type Disinfectant

Antialgal substances for iodine-disinfected swimming pools

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