The influence of creatine supplementation on the cognitive functioning of vegetarians and omnivores

Abstract

Creatine when combined with P forms phosphocreatine that acts as a reserve of high-energy phosphate. Creatine is found mostly in meat, fish and other animal products, and the levels of muscle creatine are known to be lower in vegetarians. Creatine supplementation influences brain functioning as indicated by imaging studies and the measurement of oxygenated Hb. Given the key role played by creatine in the provision of energy, the influence of its supplementation on cognitive functioning was examined, contrasting the effect in omnivores and vegetarians. Young adult females (n 128) were separated into those who were and were not vegetarian. Randomly and under a double-blind procedure, subjects consumed either a placebo or 20 g of creatine supplement for 5 d. Creatine supplementation did not influence measures of verbal fluency and vigilance. However, in vegetarians rather than in those who consume meat, creatine supplementation resulted in better memory. Irrespective of dietary style, the supplementation of creatine decreased the variability in the responses to a choice reaction-time task.Key words: Attention: Creatine: Memory: Reaction times: Vegetarians When creatine combines with P to form phosphocreatine, it acts as a reserve of high-energy phosphate that is used to rapidly convert ADP back to adenosine triphosphate (1) . In humans, although 95 % of the total creatine pool is found in skeletal muscle, high levels are also found in the heart, brain and testes. In particular, it is surprising that the influence of brain creatine status has not attracted more interest as the brain is the most metabolically active organ in the body, accounting for 20 % of BMR, although it represents only about 2 % of body weight (2) . The present study has therefore examined the influence of creatine supplementation on human cognition, in particular comparing the response of vegetarians and omnivores as there are reports that a vegetarian diet is associated with poorer creatine status (3) .

The effects of dietary methyl donors on methionine partitioning in the neonatal piglet

“…In the 4--object test, animals that had a higher concentration of GAA in the PFC spent This study demonstrated that there were no overt effects of either creatine or GAA supplementation on episodic--like memory in weaned pigs. This was contrary to our hypothesis given the dietary intake of creatine in these animals was thought to be low (Harris et al, 1997), and thus, like studies on vegetarians (Benton and Donohoe, 2011), we hypothesized that creatine supplementation would improve memory. Because episodic--like memory tests rely on hippocampal function (Kouwenberg et al, 2009), one possible explanation for this null result is that there were no observed effects of guanidino compound supplementation on creatine or GAA concentrations in the hippocampus.…”

“…Creatine supplementation has been effective at enhancing cognitive ability during times of stress, such as during sleep--deprivation in younger (McMorris et al, 2006) and older adults (McMorris et al, 2007), as well as when endogenous creatine demand was enhanced (Benton and Donohoe, 2011;Rae et al, 2003). What can be hypothesized from those studies is that creatine supplementation enhances the capacity of the brain to convert ADP !…”

Biomarkers and long-term labour market outcomes: The case of creatine

“…The study did not test for long-term effects but, as the authors note, short-term effects may be sufficient to assist with examination work, for instance, so short-term impacts may nevertheless lead to long-term gains in the labour market and in education. 15 Memory improvements were also found in a similar study, though only for vegetarians, not omnivores, and creatine supplementation had no impact on verbal fluency (Benton and Donohoe, 2011). Also double-blinded placebocontrolled tests for non-vegetarians have found positive connection between creatine supplementation and cognitive performance.…”

In sickness and in health: the widespread application of creatine supplementation

“…Furthermore, Cr intake can also alleviate mental fatigue induced by stressor stimulus such as mathematical calculus (Watanabe et al 2002) and sleep deprivation (McMorris et al 2007b). A recent study showed that in vegetarians rather than in those who consume meat, Cr supplementation improves memory (Benton and Donohoe 2010). Moreover, both vegetarians and meat eaters experienced decreased variability in the responses to a choice reactiontime task (Benton and Donohoe 2010).…”

“…A recent study showed that in vegetarians rather than in those who consume meat, Cr supplementation improves memory (Benton and Donohoe 2010). Moreover, both vegetarians and meat eaters experienced decreased variability in the responses to a choice reactiontime task (Benton and Donohoe 2010). The mechanisms underlying these findings remain to be elucidated.…”