The Meaning of Mass

Abstract

Electron, proton and neutron are described in terms of energy densities on least-action paths to show that their charges, magnetic mo ments and masses are man ifestations of quantized geodesics. According to this geometric understanding of matter, the mass of a part icle depends on how much the particle-associated curved path projects onto the straight paths of the universal surrounding energy density. The reference density of free space is embodied by the most elementary actions, the photons in propagation on their least-time paths. The vacuum density with rando m distribution of photon phases displays no electromagnetic field, yet the propagation of its force carriers will level off density differences. This manifests itself as gravitation. Transformations fro m one particle to another, for examp le oscillations, are described according to Noether's theorem as changes from one action to another. This physical portrayal of quantized nature, where every entity comprises mu ltip les of the most elementary action, parallels the atomistic tenet.

On the exhaust of electromagnetic drive

“…27 This holistic view has been recently reconciled by presenting particles in terms of quantized actions in agreement with measurements. 23,24 Thus, our explanation for the thrust is not in an obvious conflict with observations, and hence it is worth further questioning.…”

“…It is no new idea that inertial effects are immediate, because the vacuum resists changes by embracing everything. 33,54 The old reasoning becomes tangible by the proposed photon-embodied vacuum 23,24,43 and also by other forms of vacuum embodiment. 35,36,38 Since the vacuum maintains balance, i.e., free energy minimum state in relation to all bodies, any action taken by a body, will be balanced by the vacuum's reaction.…”

“…19,20 Instead, the old atomistic tenet makes sense to us by regarding the quanta of light as indivisible and indestructible basic building blocks of nature. [21][22][23][24] We infer that the EM drive expels photons in pairs where the two co-propagate with 180 degree phase difference. These composite bosons have no net electromagnetic field, and hence they do not reflect back from the resonator's metal walls, but escape to surroundings.…”

“…18,39 Considering the vacuum as physical as we maintain, one might question: Where have all the photons that embody the space come from? We argue that the space emerges from matter 23,24 by reminding that when particles annihilate with their antiparticles, only photons will emerge. For example, when an electron of mass m e annihilates with a positron, it is easy to detect two photons that emerge in propagation in opposite directions each with energy E = m e c 2 according to the mass-energy equivalence, but it is easy to miss additional photons that emerge in vacuum pairwise without net polarization and without net momentum.…”

“…The paired-photon embodied gravitational potential can be decomposed to the familiar irrotational scalar potential and to the divergence-free vector potential to account also for rotational effects. 23,24,43 Accordingly, the vacuum as the tangible substance couples to a rotating body and hence manifests itself, for example, as the frame-dragging effect 50,51 and flyby anomaly. 52 When the system has attained thermodynamic balance with its surroundings, then the net flux of force carriers vanishes between the system and its surroundings.…”