The perception of growth in three dimensions

Mark, Leonard S.; Todd, James T.

doi:10.3758/bf03202839

Cited by 64 publications

(39 citation statements)

References 13 publications

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“…This is consistent with previous research demonstrating the effects of similar transformations on apparent age (eg Pittenger and Shaw 1975;Mark and Todd 1983;Bruce et al 1991), although the effects of the strain transformation in our experiments were weaker than the results of previous research might have led us to expect. One reason for this is that in experiment 2 we used a between-subjects design, which may have been less sensitive to the effects of strain than the within-subjects designs typically used by previous researchers to investigate this phenomenon.…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 93%

Factors Influencing the Accuracy of Age Estimates of Unfamiliar Faces

1995

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Abstract. Factors affecting the accuracy with which adults could assess the age of unfamiliar male faces aged between 5 and 70 years were examined. In the first experiment twenty-five 'young' adult subjects, aged 16-25, and twenty-five 'old' adults, aged 51-60, were used. Each subject saw five versions of three different faces: these consisted of an original version of each face and four manipulated versions of it. The manipulations consisted of mirror reversal, pseudo-cardioidal strain, thresholding, and elimination of all but the internal features of the face. The second experiment was similar except that a between-subjects design was used: each subject saw three faces for each age category of target face, but was exposed to only a single type of manipulation (plus a set of 'original' faces which were identical for all groups, so that the comparability of the different groups in age estimation could be checked).Results from both experiments were similar. Age estimates for unmanipulated 'original' faces were highly accurate, although subjects were most accurate with target faces that were within their own age range. Results for the manipulated faces implied that the importance of cardioidal strain as a necessary and sufficient cue to age may have been overestimated in previous reports: subjects' age estimates were accurate when cardioidal strain was absent from the stimulus, and poor when cardioidal strain was the only cue available.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 93%

Factors Influencing the Accuracy of Age Estimates of Unfamiliar Faces

1995

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“…(These values were chosen after informal experimentation to choose a range that encompassed the k= -0.2 value used by Mark and Todd [1983], while avoiding floor effects at the smallest step sizes. However, our choice of these four values extends the range of the strain transformation beyond the level used in much other research in this area.…”

Section: General Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

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confidence: 99%

“…The experiments reported here extend this research in order to examine whether subjects are indeed detecting cardioidal strain in three dimensions, rather than detecting changes in head slant or making 2-D comparisons of the shape ofthe occluding contour. Three·dimensional surfaces were obtained by measuring a real head manually (Experiment 1) and with a laser scanner (Experiment 2), and transformed to different age levels using the 3·D strain transformation described by Mark and Todd (1983). There were no statistically significant differences in the accuracy with which relative age judgments could be made in response to pairs of profiles, pairs of 3/4 views, or pairs of mixed views (profile plus 3/4 view), suggesting that sub· jects can indeed extract the cardioidal strain level of the head in three dimensions.…”

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confidence: 99%

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Further experiments on the perception of growth in three dimensions

Bruce

Burton

Doyle

et al. 1989

Perception & Psychophysics

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Mark and Todd (1983) reported an experiment in which the cardioidal strain transformation was extended to three dimensions and applied to a three·dimensiona1 (3·D) representation of the head of a 15·year-old girl in a direction that made the transformed head appear younger to the vast majority of their subjects. The experiments reported here extend this research in order to examine whether subjects are indeed detecting cardioidal strain in three dimensions, rather than detecting changes in head slant or making 2-D comparisons of the shape ofthe occluding contour. Three·dimensional surfaces were obtained by measuring a real head manually (Experiment 1) and with a laser scanner (Experiment 2), and transformed to different age levels using the 3·D strain transformation described by Mark and Todd (1983). There were no statistically significant differences in the accuracy with which relative age judgments could be made in response to pairs of profiles, pairs of 3/4 views, or pairs of mixed views (profile plus 3/4 view), suggesting that sub· jects can indeed extract the cardioidal strain level of the head in three dimensions. However, an additional effect that emerged in these studies was that judgments were crucially affected by the instructions given to subjects, which suggests that factors other than cardioidal strain are important in making judgments about rich data structures.

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“…As an individual grows from infancy to adulthood, the shape of the head changes systematically in a way that naive observers can readily identify as resulting from growth, as opposed, for example, to gain-ing weight or undergoing plastic surgery (Mark & Todd, 1983;Pittenger & Shaw, 1975;Pittenger, Shaw, & Mark, 1979;Todd, Mark, Shaw, & Pittenger, 1980;. Within this overall pattern of change, however, there are certain properties of craniofacial structure (e.g., its bilateral symmetry) that remain quite stable over time.…”

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confidence: 99%