The potential for golf courses to support restoration of biodiversity for BioBanking offsets

Abstract

In golf course development there is frequently remnant vegetation on the areas unused for infrastructure. We propose that these areas, together with a whole range of other reserves including sporting fields, cemeteries, railway reserves and educational facilities may be the source of degraded remnant vegetation and associated open space that could be used to provide offsets for biodiversity. We followed the changes in vertebrate biodiversity with low key alteration to management of the Camden Lakeside Golf Course to assess if such areas had the potential for biodiversity banking offsets. Birds, bats, frogs and reptiles increased in species diversity over time. Frogs and reptiles tended to peak in species numbers during the observational period but bat and bird diversity continued to increase. We concluded that on this 'island' within a matrix of urbanisation and cleared agricultural lands without remnant vegetation, observed changes in diversity made such areas potential sites for biodiversity banking offsets.

Characterization and Justification of Trees on an Inner-City Golf Course in Halifax, Canada: An Investigation into the Ecological Integrity of Institutional Greenspace

“…Conversely, non-golfers expressed the exact opposite opinion, with 64% responding negatively due to perceived destruction of habitat [5]. Since that study's publication, however, extensive research has demonstrated the ecological benefits of golf courses, especially in urban settings [16,17,25,26,[28][29][30].…”

“…Golf courses can play a vital role in enhancing biodiversity by providing a refuge for flora and fauna and improving connectivity between greenspaces [29]. Terman supports this point by identifying small naturalized ecosystems, such as those found on golf courses, as "habitat sinks" [24] (p. 192), meaning that these smaller habitats often support the mating activities of migrating populations.…”

“…Though arguments have been made that chemical contamination of golf course wetlands could put species at risk [32], a 2017 study showed that minor management improvements, such as adjusting fertilization timelines, would significantly reduce threats of negative impacts [33]. Indeed, swelling populations of amphibian, bird, and bat species have been correlated to minor management improvements such as supporting natural regeneration of native vegetation [29,34]. While some studies have hypothesized that strong species representation on golf courses is either due to the resilience of urban-adaptable species or their habitual behavior, it is generally conceded that, in any case, most species tend to do better on golf courses than in residential developments, such as suburbs [27,31].…”

“…Conversely, if a course is constructed on a former parking lot or agricultural field, it is likely to improve the ecological integrity of the site. Thus, since golf courses have historically been constructed on agricultural land as opposed to productive and ecologically diverse hinterland, their development has often led to a relatively improved degree of biodiversity [24,29]. This is indeed the case at the OAGC, which was constructed in 1922 on a Stanley Thompson design.…”

“…In an age where five-hour forays across fairways is a luxury few can afford, especially at $50 to $100 CAD per round [50], many millennials find the exclusivity of golf to be unappealing [47]. This disinterest has resulted in declining memberships and increasing course closures across the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada [29,47,48]. These perceptions are detrimental to the longevity of golf courses; without community support, these spaces are likely to be redeveloped into something with less ecological potential: a suburban neighborhood, for example [51].…”