Tonic immobility in the squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus)

Factor structure of the Tonic Immobility Scale in female sexual assault survivors: An exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis

“…In the laboratory, researchers typically use manual or mechanical restraint to induce TI in non-human animals, as these procedures are believed to model the physical contact and subsequent immobilization that is a consequence of a predatory attack in the wild (Gallup & Rager, 1996). This state of immobility can persist for several seconds to as long as several hours after removal of restraint; a findings that has been demonstrated in numerous species (e.g., fish, reptiles and amphibians, mammals and primates; Davies et al, 2002;Hennig, 1978;Lefebvre & Sabourin, 1977). Termination of the TI response, in turn, is typically abrupt and can be precipitated by sudden changes in the environment (e.g., a sudden loud noise; Gallup, 1977).…”

Induction and duration of tonic immobility in the lemon shark, Negaprion brevirostris

“…Tonic immobility can be induced by various procedures which place the subject in an 'unnatural' posture or situation, which has the effect of altering the usual course of its sensorimotor and emotional interchanges with its environment (Chertok 1968). The TI response has been demonstrated in a wide range of organisms including humans and primates (Crawford 1977;Hennig 1978), small mammals, (Chertok 1968) birds, (Nash and Gallup 1976;Gallup et al 1976;Hennig 1979) reptiles, (Crawford 1977) amphibians, (Karmanova et al 1976;Ternes 1977) bony (Karmanova et al 1976;Crawford 1977;Lefebure and Sabourin 1977) and cartilagenous (Whitman et al 1986) fishes, crustacea, and insects (Ratner 1977).…”

Theory of Mind: Towards an Evolutionary Theory

“…It has even been reported, although in a highly weakened form, in primates. The pervasiveness of tonic immobility in the animal kingdom is a strong argument in favor of its adaptive value (Prestrude 1977;Ratner 1977;Hennig 1978;Klemm 2001). 4 It is not only in animals, however, that we find such defensive reactions.…”