Among the distinct molecular signatures present in the mitochondrion is the tetra-acylated anionic phospholipid cardiolipin, a lipid also present in primordial, single-cell bacterial ancestors of mitochondria and multiple bacterial species today. Cardiolipin is normally localized to the inner mitochondrial membrane; however, when cardiolipin becomes externalized to the surface of dysregulated mitochondria, it promotes inflammasome activation and stimulates the elimination of damaged or nonfunctional mitochondria by mitophagy. Given the immunogenicity of mitochondrial and bacterial membranes that are released during sterile and pathogen-induced trauma, we hypothesized that cardiolipins might function as “eat me” signals for professional phagocytes. In experiments with macrophage cell lines and primary macrophages, we found that membranes with mitochondrial or bacterial cardiolipins on their surface were engulfed through phagocytosis, which depended on the scavenger receptor CD36. Distinct from this process, the copresentation of cardiolipin with the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) agonist lipopolysaccharide dampened TLR4-stimulated production of cytokines. These data suggest that externalized, extracellular cardiolipins play a dual role in host-host and host-pathogen interactions by promoting phagocytosis and attenuating inflammatory immune responses.

Exposure to rotenone in vivo results in selective degeneration of dopaminergic neurons and development of neuropathological features of Parkinson's disease. As rotenone acts as an inhibitor of mitochondrial respiratory complex I, we employed oxidative lipidomics to assess oxidative metabolism of a mitochondria-specific phospholipid, cardiolipin, in substantia nigra of exposed animals. We found a significant reduction of oxidizable PUFA-containing cardiolipin molecular species. We further revealed increased contents of mono-oxygenated cardiolipin species at late stages of the exposure. Notably, linoleic acid in sn-1 position was the major oxidation substrate yielding its mono-hydroxy- and epoxy-derivatives whereas more readily “oxidizable” fatty acid residues (arachidonic, docosahexaenoic acids) – remained non-oxidized. Elevated levels of PUFA cardiolipins were detected in plasma of rats exposed to rotenone. Characterization of oxidatively modified cardiolipin molecular species in substantia nirga and detection of PUFA-containing cardiolipin species in plasma may contribute to better understanding of the Parkinson's disease pathogenesis and lead to the development of new biomarkers of mitochondrial dysfunction associated with this disease.

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