European wolves (Canis lupus) show population genetic structure in the absence of geographic barriers, and across relatively short distances for this highly mobile species. Additional information on the location of and divergence between population clusters is required, particularly because wolves are currently recolonizing parts of Europe. We evaluated genetic structure in 177 wolves from 11 countries using over 67K single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) loci. The results supported previous findings of an isolated Italian population with lower genetic diversity than that observed across other areas of Europe. Wolves from the remaining countries were primarily structured in a north-south axis, with Croatia, Bulgaria, and Greece (Dinaric-Balkan) differentiated from northcentral wolves that included individuals from Finland, Latvia, Belarus, Poland and Russia. Carpathian Mountain wolves in central Europe had genotypes intermediate between those identified in northcentral Europe and the Dinaric-Balkan cluster. Overall, individual genotypes from northcentral Europe suggested high levels of admixture. We observed high diversity within Belarus, with wolves from western and northern Belarus representing the two most differentiated groups within northcentral Europe. Our results support the presence of at least three major clusters (Italy, Carpathians, Dinaric-Balkan) in southern and central Europe. Individuals from Croatia also appeared differentiated from wolves in Greece and Bulgaria. Expansion from glacial refugia, adaptation to local environments, and human-related factors such as landscape fragmentation and frequent killing of wolves in some areas may have contributed to the observed patterns. Our findings can help inform conservation management of these apex predators and the ecosystems of which they are part.

Large terrestrial carnivores are particularly prone to factors constraining levels of population genetic diversity because of their low densities and high spatial requirements. We studied the pattern of Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx population genetic variability in the westernmost part of its natural range from Scandinavia to the Carpathian Mountains (north-central Europe) based on 190 samples using 613 base pair-long sequences from the mitochondrial DNA control region (mtDNAcr). We examined whether the population history or contemporary habitat constraints of this large and mobile carnivore could have significantly affected its genetic structure. We recorded nine mtDNA haplotypes, including five not previously reported. Lynx from Latvia and Estonia had the highest variability with haplotype and nucleotide diversities of 0.81-0.88% and 0.44-0.47%, respectively. In contrast, there was no polymorphism present in peripheral populations from Norway and the Carpathian Mountains. Lynx populations were strongly differentiated [analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA): FST = 0.570, P < 0.001, FST = 0.464, P < 0.001)]. Spatial Analysis of Molecular Variance identified four separate groups of populations: (1) Norway, Finland and Estonia; (2) Latvia and North Eastern Poland; (3) the Białowieża Primeval Forest; (4) the Carpathians. The patterns of genetic diversity and differentiation suggested a number of discrete populations that are poorly connected by contemporary gene flow and could therefore be considered demographically independent. The peripheral location of these populations, habitat fragmentation and the strict territorial structure of lynx populations are factors likely contributing to the observed patterns. The study provides suggestions for active conservation/management decisions including translocations or reintroductions of lynx. bs_bs_banner Animal Conservation. Print ISSN 1367-9430 Animal Conservation 15 (2012) 603-612

Large carnivores are essential components of natural ecosystems. In populated areas, their conservation depends on preserving a favorable status in coexistence with humans, which may require the elimination of excess carnivores to minimize public concerns. As the Baltic region currently hosts a thriving wolf population, locally sustainable management of wolves is important for preserving biodiversity at a European scale. In this paper, we provide a dynamic assessment of the Latvian wolf subpopulation from 1998 until 2020. This study is based on age composition and fecundity data from teeth, uteri, and ovaria inspections obtained from samples of legally culled or accidentally killed individuals. The abundance estimates indicated population growth that exceeded the previously predicted carrying capacity. The proportion of juveniles among the culled individuals increased in recent years, but the mean age of culled adults exhibited a stable trend. In presumably nonselective hunting, the juveniles and individuals older than 3 years had greater culling mortality estimates in comparison with other age classes, and the culling rates for adult females of particular age classes were higher than for males of the same age. While creating significant hunting pressure, wolf management in Latvia may have contributed to the population growth by affecting its demographic processes.

No abstract

We studied the relationship between the variability and contemporary distribution of pelage phenotypes in one of most widely distributed felid species and an array of environmental and demographic conditions. We collected 672 photographic georeferenced records of the Eurasian lynx throughout Eurasia. We assigned each lynx coat to one of five phenotypes. Then we fitted the coat patterns to different environmental and anthropogenic variables, as well as the effective geographic distances from inferred glacial refugia. A majority of lynx were either of the large spotted (41.5%) or unspotted (uniform, 36.2%) phenotype. The remaining patterns (rosettes, small spots and pseudo-rosettes) were represented in 11.0%, 7.4%, and 3.9% of samples, respectively. Although various environmental variables greatly affected lynx distribution and habitat suitability, it was the effect of least-cost distances from locations of the inferred refugia during the Last Glacial Maximum that explained the distribution of lynx coat patterns the best. Whereas the occurrence of lynx phenotypes with large spots was explained by the proximity to refugia located in the Caucasus/Middle East, the uniform phenotype was associated with refugia in the Far East and Central Asia. Despite the widely accepted hypothesis of adaptive functionality of coat patterns in mammals and exceptionally high phenotypic polymorphism in Eurasian lynx, we did not find well-defined signs of habitat matching in the coat pattern of this species. Instead, we showed how the global patterns of morphological variability in this large mammal and its environmental adaptations may have been shaped by past climatic change.