The diet of Canis lupus in Latvia was studied from December 2001 to April 2008 based on analyses of 165 stomachs. Wild ungulates (cervids and wild boar) were the main food of the wolves. Cervids were found in 64.7% of the samples (69.7% of the biomass), wild boar in 25.9% of the samples (22.6% of the biomass), and beavers in 8.6% of the samples (6.4% of the biomass). The average mass of stomach contents was 824.1 g. Empty stomachs made up 26.7% of all stomachs. Statistically significant differences were found comparing variances of stomach content biomass between 1-2-year-old and adult animals and also in beaver remains in the diet of male and female wolves (12.9% and 3.2% of the stomach content biomass, respectively). There were no other significant differences in the diet composition, stomach content biomass, and percentage of empty stomachs among age groups, between sexes, and between eastern and western parts of Latvia. Interpretation and implications to wolf conservation policy based on the given results are suggested.

The acceptance of large carnivores is one of the key issues for their conservation. We analyzed the level acceptance of brown bears (Ursus arctos Linnaeus, 1758) amongst 10-18 year old school students in four European countries using anonymous questionnaires. Our aim was to characterize the drivers of species acceptance, described as a rural-urban cline, as well as fear levels and the respondents' familiarity with bears. We found lower levels of acceptance of bears were related to fear of bears and that bear acceptance was not higher in the bear-inhabited countries, but urban inhabitants tended to better accept the species. Factor analysis revealed the importance of country-related aspects, familiarity with bears, experiences in human-wildlife conflict, gender-age differences, respondent's relationship to nature and the origin of their knowledge of the species. We consider that bear-related education and mass media in Latvia and Lithuania could reduce fear of these animals and sustain their acceptance, while human-wildlife conflict management measures in Bulgaria and Turkey are recommended to boost the appreciation of the species.Sustainability 2020, 12, 2397 2 of 15 between the ages of 10 and 13 years, these consolidated at around 16 years of age. Therefore, early age positive attitudes can be developed into more nature friendly views and may foster wildlife conservation in the future [9]. In this study, we focus on brown bear (BB) acceptance by teenagers, as this is indicative of the future of conservation of the BB and other large carnivores. Teenagers are also important in the light of the current trend of scientific ignorance in society and the rapid decrease of interest in biology among schoolchildren [16]. Gender differences in the aforementioned issues are well expressed, as well as a decreasing interest towards animals in older children [17].Teenager attitudes toward LC species depend on several factors, one of which is the presence of a LC species. In Lithuania wolf (Canis lupus) acceptance has been found to be directly related to their presence in the region [18]. In Norway, where the wolf population is minimal, wolf was rated as the most dangerous animal by children and adolescents (9-15 years) regardless of respondents' age, with girls expressing more negatively [19]. The rural-urban cline is also very important in the planning of the future of LC conservation [12]. Removed from the direct arena of human-carnivore conflict, young people living in urban areas are able to more rapidly change their attitudes towards nature and conservation, developing a positive LC acceptance [20]. However, urbanization cannot be seen as a solution to human-wildlife conflicts because the actual conflict may not, in reality, concern the wildlife. All conservation or damage-related conflicts are ultimately between humans with different interests, views and values [21], e.g., urban vs. rural inhabitants.Differences in species acceptance between even neighboring countries may be unexpectedly high: in three Baltic countries ...

Large carnivores are essential components of natural ecosystems. In populated areas, their conservation depends on preserving a favorable status in coexistence with humans, which may require the elimination of excess carnivores to minimize public concerns. As the Baltic region currently hosts a thriving wolf population, locally sustainable management of wolves is important for preserving biodiversity at a European scale. In this paper, we provide a dynamic assessment of the Latvian wolf subpopulation from 1998 until 2020. This study is based on age composition and fecundity data from teeth, uteri, and ovaria inspections obtained from samples of legally culled or accidentally killed individuals. The abundance estimates indicated population growth that exceeded the previously predicted carrying capacity. The proportion of juveniles among the culled individuals increased in recent years, but the mean age of culled adults exhibited a stable trend. In presumably nonselective hunting, the juveniles and individuals older than 3 years had greater culling mortality estimates in comparison with other age classes, and the culling rates for adult females of particular age classes were higher than for males of the same age. While creating significant hunting pressure, wolf management in Latvia may have contributed to the population growth by affecting its demographic processes.

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