White matter damage is an important consequence of traumatic brain injury (TBI) in humans. Unlike rodents, ferrets have a substantial amount of white matter and a gyrencephalic brain; therefore, they may represent an ideal small mammal model to study human-pertinent consequences of TBI.Here we report immunohistochemical and behavioral results after a controlled cortical impact (CCI) injury to the sensorimotor cortex of adult male ferrets. We assessed inflammation in the neocortex and white matter, and behavior at 1 day post injury and 1, 4, and 16 weeks post injury (WPI). CCI in the ferret produced inflammation that originated in the neocortex near the site of the injury and progressed deep into the white matter with time. The density of microglia and astrocytes increased in the neocortex near the injury, peaking at 4WPI and remaining elevated at 16WPI. Microglial morphology in the neocortex was significantly altered in the first 4 weeks, but showed a return toward normal at 16 weeks. Clusters of microglial cells in the white matter persisted until 16WPI. We assessed motor and cognitive behavior using the open field, novel object recognition, T-maze, and gait tests. A transient deficit in memory occurred at 4WPI, with a reduction of rearing and motor ability at 12 and 16WPI. Behavioral impairments coincide with features of the inflammatory changes in the neocortex revealed by immunohistochemistry. The ferret represents an important animal model to explore ongoing damage in the white matter and cerebral cortex after TBI. K E Y W O R D Sastrocytes, astrogliosis, attention, behavior, brain, cerebral cortex, cognitive impairment, GFAP, gray matter, mammals, memory, neuroinflammation, reactive microglia, TBI (traumatic brain injury), white matter

The present study was designed to investigate the effects of caffeine and adrenaline administration on memory and anxiety in male rats. Rats weighing about 140-200g were used for the study. They were divided into three groups (4 animals per group). Study groups 1; a,b,c,d were healthy rats administered normal saline, 5,10 and 15mg/kg bw caffeine intraperitoneally (i.p.), respectively for 6 weeks. Study groups 2; a,b,c,d administered normal saline, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.31mg/kg bw adrenaline (i.p.), respectively for 6 weeks. Study groups 3; a,b,c,d administered normal saline, 5mg/kg caffeine (i.p.) + 0.1mg/kg adrenaline (i.p.), 10mg/kg Caffeine (i.p.) + 0.2mg/kg Adrenaline (i.p.) and 15mg/kg Caffeine (i.p.) + 0.3mg/kg Adrenaline (i.p.) respectively for 6 weeks. The result showed no significant difference in spatial memory across all animals in study groups 1: b,c,d when compared to control (a). Study groups 2: (b, c) showed increase in spatial memory when compared to control (a). 2(d) showed a significant (p<0.05) decrease. Study groups 3: b, c, d showed no significant difference in spatial memory when compared to control (a). Study groups 1: b, c showed significant (p<0.05) reduction in duration for the short and long term memory test when compared to control. Study groups 2 showed reduction in duration for both the long and short term memory test when compared to control Study groups 3 no significant (p<0.05) difference in short and long term memory test across all animals in the group. It was also observed that adrenaline enhanced short and long term memory and only high dose of adrenaline distorted spatial memory. Study groups 1; (b,c) showed significant (p<0.05) increase in the number of entries to the open arm of the elevated plus maze when compared to control (a). Study groups 2; (b), showed significant (p<0.05) increase in the frequencies of entries to the closed arm of the elevated plus maze when compared to control (a). Study groups 2; (d), showed a significant (p<0.05) decrease in the frequency of entries to the open and closed arm when compared to control (a). The study revealed that co- administration of caffeine and adrenaline led to elevation of mood, increased activity and reduction of anxiety in Wistar rats. In addition, it was observed that only high dose of adrenaline increased anxiety. It was also observed that caffeine and adrenaline enhanced short and long term memory and only high dose of adrenaline distorted spatial memory.

Background This study was carried out to investigate the effects of acetone extract of Cola nitida on brain Na+/K+-ATPase activity and spatial memory of healthy and streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic female Wistar rats. Methods Forty-two female Wistar rats were used for this study and were randomly distributed into six groups (n=7). Rats in group 1 were used as control and were administered normal saline; group 2 rats were healthy rats administered 50 mg/kg of kola nut extract per day; group 3 rats were healthy rats administered 100 mg/kg of kola nut extract per day; group 4 rats were a diabetic group also administered normal saline; group 5 rats were diabetic rats administered 50 mg/kg of kola nut extract per day; and group 6 rats were diabetic rats administered 100 mg/kg of kola nut extract per day. Diabetes was induced with 50 mg/kg of STZ. After 3 weeks of administration, the spatial memories of the rats were tested using the Y-maze, followed by assay of Na+/K+-ATPase activity. Results The result shows a significant increase in Na+/K+-ATPase activity of diabetic treated groups (5 and 6) when compared with the diabetic group (4) and a significant increase in Na+/K+-ATPase activity of healthy treated groups (2 and 3) when compared with control. Also, there was a significant increase in spatial memory of the diabetic treated groups when compared with diabetic group. Conclusions This study revealed that kola nut extract has restorative effect on brain Na+/K+-ATPase activities and spatial memory of STZ-induced diabetic female Wistar rats.

Background: The numbers of people with salt-sensitive hypertension and cardiometabolic diseases (CMD) are increasing due to high-salt diet (HSD) consumption globally. Parkia biglobosa (PB), an African locust bean tree, has been reported to have several cardiovascular protective properties but its ameliorative effects on CMD are scarcely reported. Therefore, this study aimed at investigating the effects of PB stem bark aqueous extract on some risk markers of CMD in weanling male rats subjected to HSD and Spironolactone (Sp) treatment.Twenty-five weanling male rats (95-105 g) were divided into 5 groups: Group 1 (Control); Group 2 (untreated HSD) fed on normal chow and HSD (8% NaCl); Group 3 (HSD+Sp); Group 4 (HSD+PB); Group 5 (HSD+Sp+PB) fed on HSD (8% NaCl) and received either 80 mg/kg of Sp or 400 mg/kg of PB and both as treatment, respectively. After 6 weeks of treatment, blood samples and heart were collected from each animal for biochemical analysis.Results: Administration of both PB and Sp or only PB, significantly decreased the plasma or cardiac adenosine deaminase, xanthine oxidase, C-reactive protein, lipids (except high density lipoprotein), uric acid, sodium, and potassium concentrations. Contrarily, the plasma as well as cardiac nitric oxide and endothelial nitric oxide synthase increased significantly by the same treatment.Conclusion: Parkia biglobosa or its administration with Spironolactone ameliorates associated-risk markers of cardiometabolic disease which are triggered by high salt diet.

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