The nucleolus represents an essential stress sensor for the cell. However, the molecular consequences of nucleolar damage and their possible link with neurodegenerative diseases remain to be elucidated. Here, we show that nucleolar damage is present in both genders in Parkinson's disease (PD) and in the pharmacological PD model induced by the neurotoxin 1,2,3,6-tetrahydro-1-methyl-4-phenylpyridine hydrochloride (MPTP). Mouse mutants with nucleolar disruption restricted to dopaminergic (DA) neurons show phenotypic alterations that resemble PD, such as progressive and differential loss of DA neurons and locomotor abnormalities. At the molecular level, nucleolar disruption results in increased p53 levels and downregulation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) activity, leading to mitochondrial dysfunction and increased oxidative stress, similar to PD. In turn, increased oxidative stress induced by MPTP causes mTOR and ribosomal RNA synthesis inhibition. Collectively, these observations suggest that the interplay between nucleolar dysfunction and increased oxidative stress, involving p53 and mTOR signaling, may constitute a destructive axis in experimental and sporadic PD.

MicroRNAs are post-transcriptional regulators of gene expression, crucial for neuronal differentiation, survival, and activity. Age-related dysregulation of microRNA biogenesis increases neuronal vulnerability to cellular stress and may contribute to the development and progression of neurodegenerative diseases. All major neurodegenerative disorders are also associated with oxidative stress, which is widely recognized as a potential target for protective therapies. Albeit often considered separately, microRNA networks and oxidative stress are inextricably entwined in neurodegenerative processes. Oxidative stress affects expression levels of multiple microRNAs and, conversely, microRNAs regulate many genes involved in an oxidative stress response. Both oxidative stress and microRNA regulatory networks also influence other processes linked to neurodegeneration, such as mitochondrial dysfunction, deregulation of proteostasis, and increased neuroinflammation, which ultimately lead to neuronal death. Modulating the levels of a relatively small number of microRNAs may therefore alleviate pathological oxidative damage and have neuroprotective activity. Here, we review the role of individual microRNAs in oxidative stress and related pathways in four neurodegenerative conditions: Alzheimer’s (AD), Parkinson’s (PD), Huntington’s (HD) disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). We also discuss the problems associated with the use of oversimplified cellular models and highlight perspectives of studying microRNA regulation and oxidative stress in human stem cell-derived neurons.

Astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia are abundant cell types found in the central nervous system and have been shown to play crucial roles in regulating both normal and disease states. An increasing amount of evidence points to the critical importance of glia in mediating neurodegeneration in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases (AD, PD), and in ischemic stroke, where microglia are involved in initial tissue clearance, and astrocytes in the subsequent formation of a glial scar. The importance of these cells for neuronal survival has previously been studied in co-culture experiments and the search for neurotrophic factors (NTFs) initiated after finding that the addition of conditioned media from astrocyte cultures could support the survival of primary neurons in vitro . This led to the discovery of the potent dopamine neurotrophic factor, glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF). In this review, we focus on the relationship between glia and NTFs including neurotrophins, GDNF-family ligands, CNTF family, and CDNF/MANF-family proteins. We describe their expression in astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and their precursors (NG2-positive cells, OPCs), and microglia during development and in the adult brain. Furthermore, we review existing data on the glial phenotypes of NTF knockout mice and follow NTF expression patterns and their effects on glia in disease models such as AD, PD, stroke, and retinal degeneration.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive age-related movement disorder that results primarily from the selective loss of midbrain dopaminergic (DA) neurons. Symptoms of PD can be induced by genetic mutations or by DA neuron-specific toxins. A specific ablation of an essential factor controlling ribosomal RNA transcription, TifIa, in adult mouse DA neurons represses mTOR signaling and leads to progressive neurodegeneration and PD-like phenotype. Using an inducible Cre system in adult mice, we show here that the specific ablation of Pten in adult mouse DA neurons leads to activation of mTOR pathway and is neuroprotective in genetic (TifIa deletion) and neurotoxin-induced (MPTP or 6OHDA) mouse models of PD. Adult mice with DA neuron-specific Pten deletion exhibit elevated expression of tyrosine hydroxylase, a rate-limiting enzyme in the dopamine biosynthesis pathway, associated with increased striatal dopamine content, and increased mRNA levels of Foxa2, Pitx3, En1, Nurr1, and Lmx1b-the essential factors for maintaining physiological functions of adult DA neurons. Pten deletion attenuates the loss of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive cells after 6OHDA treatment, restores striatal dopamine in TifIa-knockout and MPTP-treated mice, and rescues locomotor impairments caused by TifIa loss. Inhibition of Pten-dependent functions in adult DA neurons may represent a promising PD therapy.