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are anchored in UG 2002, and try to stimulate their implementation in higher education steering instruments like performance agreements 1. This autonomy went hand in hand with the expectation that gender equality policy would focus more strongly on the respective university's own specific situation and thus be designed more effectively. It also aimed to support an orientation on good practices at other universities, i.e. to strengthen the competitive element by monitoring and comparing universities (Höllinger & Titscher, 2004). Hence, the years following the implementation of UG 2002-despite the statutory definition of equal opportunities bodies-under the provisions of UG 2002 (each university must set up an equality opportunities working group and a coordination unit for women's and gender research and publish a plan to advance women)-led to a broad range of different equal opportunities policies at universities, with clear differences in focus, allocation of resources and commitment (Tiefenthaler & Good, 2011). This development coincided with the realignment of public budgets to the principle of impact orientation to ensure more efficient deployment of public monies. Each ministry formulated at least one genderrelated impact goal, with the Science Ministry setting the goal of achieving a "gender balance in leadership positions, committees and young scientists/artists". This was to be achieved through increasing the share of women professors, the share of women in leadership positions/on university committees as well as the share of women in Laufbahnstellentenure track positions leading to assistance professorships (Wroblewski 2016). Each university's contribution to this goal is defined in its respective performance agreement. In Germany, the Higher Education Framework Act of 1999 amended higher education law and cooperation between the federal government and the federal states (Länder) in the higher education system-with far-reaching consequences for equal opportunities policy. Until the mid-2000s, equal opportunities policy in higher education was shaped by state regulations and federal and Länder programmes respectively. The reform of German federalism, which assigned the Länder more legal authority and a larger budget for higher education institutions than before, led to an end of the country's Higher Education and Research Programme's for Equal Opportuni ties (Hochschul-und Wissenschaftsprogramm; HWP). This resulted in an absence of nationwide stimuli and resources for improving gender equality at higher education establishments. At the same time, numerous scientific stakeholders published "their" approach to equal opportunities in research. The different positions and initiatives to improve gender equality developed lively dynamics that also attracted media attention (Dalhoff, Lipinsky, Löther, & Steinweg, 2015).

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