Recent morphological and molecular evidence has changed interpretations of arthropod phylogeny and evolution. Here we compare complete mitochondrial genomes to show that Collembola, a wingless group traditionally considered as basal to all insects, appears instead to constitute a separate evolutionary lineage that branched much earlier than the separation of many crustaceans and insects and independently adapted to life on land. Therefore, the taxon Hexapoda, as commonly defined to include all six-legged arthropods, is not monophyletic.

The olive fly, Bactrocera oleae, is the major pest of olives in most commercial olive-growing regions worldwide. The species is abundant in the Mediterranean basin and has been introduced recently into California and Mexico, creating problems for quarantine protection and international trade. Here, we use nuclear microsatellite markers and mitochondrial sequences to examine the history of olive fly range expansion and colonization. Sampled populations span the current distribution of the olive fly worldwide, including South and Central Africa, Pakistan, Mediterranean Europe and Middle East, California, and Mexico. The Pakistani populations appear to be genetically well differentiated from the remaining populations, though rooting the origins of the species is problematic. Genetic similarity and assignment tests cluster the remaining populations into two genetic groups--Africa and a group including the Mediterranean basin and the American region. That Africa, and not the Mediterranean, is the origin of flies infesting cultivated olive is supported by the significantly greater genetic diversity at microsatellite loci in Africa relative to the Mediterranean area. The results also indicate that the recent invasion of olive flies in the American region most likely originated from the Mediterranean area.

Background: The phylogeny of Arthropoda is still a matter of harsh debate among systematists, and significant disagreement exists between morphological and molecular studies. In particular, while the taxon joining hexapods and crustaceans (the Pancrustacea) is now widely accepted among zoologists, the relationships among its basal lineages, and particularly the supposed reciprocal paraphyly of Crustacea and Hexapoda, continues to represent a challenge. Several genes, as well as different molecular markers, have been used to tackle this problem in molecular phylogenetic studies, with the mitochondrial DNA being one of the molecules of choice. In this study, we have assembled the largest data set available so far for Pancrustacea, consisting of 100 complete (or almost complete) sequences of mitochondrial genomes. After removal of unalignable sequence regions and highly rearranged genomes, we used nucleotide and inferred amino acid sequences of the 13 protein coding genes to reconstruct the phylogenetic relationships among major lineages of Pancrustacea. The analysis was performed with Bayesian inference, and for the amino acid sequences a new, Pancrustacea-specific, matrix of amino acid replacement was developed and used in this study.

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We examined the genetic structure among populations and regions for thespringtails Cryptopygus antarcticus antarcticus and Gomphiocephalus hodgsoni(Collembola) to identify potential historical refugia and subsequent colonizationroutes, and to examine population growth/expansion and relative ages ofpopulation divergence.Location Antarctic Peninsula for C. a. antarcticus; Antarctic continent (southernVictoria Land) for G. hodgsoni.Methods Samples were collected from 24 and 28 locations across the AntarcticPeninsula and southern Victoria Land regions for C. a. antarcticus andG. hodgsoni, respectively. We used population genetic, demographic and nestedclade analyses based on mitochondrial DNA (cytochrome c oxidase subunit I andsubunit II).Results Both species were found to have population structures compatiblewith the presence of historical glacial refugia on Pleistocene (2 Ma–present) timescales,followed by post-glacial expansion generating contemporary geographicallyisolated populations. However, G. hodgsoni populations were characterized by afragmented pattern with several ‘phylogroups’ (likely ancestral haplotypes presentin high frequency) retaining strong ancestral linkages among present-daypopulations. Conversely, C. a. antarcticus had an excess of rare haplotypes witha much reduced volume of ancestral lineages, possibly indicating historicalfounder/bottleneck events and widespread expansion.Main conclusions We infer that these differences reflect distinct evolutionaryhistories in each locality despite the resident species having similar life-historycharacteristics. We suggest that this has predominantly been influenced byvariation in the success of colonization events as a result of intrinsic historicalglaciological differences between the Antarctic Peninsula and continentalAntarctic environment