Cold pools dominate the surface temperature variability observed over the central Indian Ocean (0°, 80°E) for 2 months of research cruise observations in the Dynamics of the Madden–Julian Oscillation (DYNAMO) experiment in October–December 2011. Cold pool fronts are identified by a rapid drop of temperature. Air in cold pools is slightly drier than the boundary layer (BL). Consistent with previous studies, cold pools attain wet-bulb potential temperatures representative of saturated downdrafts originating from the lower midtroposphere. Wind and surface fluxes increase, and rain is most likely within the ~20-min cold pool front. Greatest integrated water vapor and liquid follow the front. Temperature and velocity fluctuations shorter than 6 min achieve 90% of the surface latent and sensible heat flux in cold pools. The temperature of the cold pools recovers in about 20 min, chiefly by mixing at the top of the shallow cold wake layer, rather than by surface flux. Analysis of conserved variables shows mean BL air is composed of 51% air entrained from the BL top (800 m), 22% saturated downdrafts, and 27% air at equilibrium with the ocean surface. The number of cold pools, and their contribution to the BL heat and moisture, nearly doubles in the convectively active phase compared to the suppressed phase of the Madden–Julian oscillation.

Abstract

Based on long-term observations by the Atmospheric Radiation Measurement program at its Southern Great Plains site, a new composite case of continental shallow cumulus (ShCu) convection is constructed for large-eddy simulations (LES) and single-column models. The case represents a typical daytime nonprecipitating ShCu whose formation and dissipation are driven by the local atmospheric conditions and land surface forcing and are not influenced by synoptic weather events. The case includes early morning initial profiles of temperature and moisture with a residual layer; diurnally varying sensible and latent heat fluxes, which represent a domain average over different land surface types; simplified large-scale horizontal advective tendencies and subsidence; and horizontal winds with prevailing direction and average speed. Observed composite cloud statistics are provided for model evaluation. The observed diurnal cycle is well reproduced by LES; however, the cloud amount, liquid water path, and shortwave radiative effect are generally underestimated. LES are compared between simulations with an all-or-nothing bulk microphysics and a spectral bin microphysics. The latter shows improved agreement with observations in the total cloud cover and the amount of clouds with depths greater than 300 m. When compared with radar retrievals of in-cloud air motion, LES produce comparable downdraft vertical velocities, but a larger updraft area, velocity, and updraft mass flux. Both observations and LES show a significantly larger in-cloud downdraft fraction and downdraft mass flux than marine ShCu.

The near-surface characteristics of approximately 300 convective cold pools over the equatorial Indian Ocean are studied using surface meteorological variables from two equatorial Indian Ocean sites, radar imagery, and constrained cloud-resolving simulations. The observed temperature drop at cold pool onset is typically accompanied by a drying and a decrease in moist static energy, signifying air transport from above the boundary layer through precipitation-induced downdrafts. The decrease in the surface water vapor mixing ratio is more pronounced for stronger temperature drops. Composites reveal a slight enhancement in moisture coincident with a slight enhancement in temperature prior to the cold pool frontal temperature drop. The slight enhancements occur prior to a gust of increased surface winds, suggesting that the immediate cause is wind convergence. A statistical analysis combined with a focus on selected case studies is consistent with a view that the strongest cold pools occur in intermediate column water vapor paths with drier midtropospheres. Such conditions are more likely to occur during convectively suppressed phases of the Madden-Julian Oscillation, when cold pool mesoscale organization facilitates the ability of cumulus congestus to reach the middle troposphere. Cold pools thus help explain why tropical cumulus congestus are common. Cloud-resolving simulations capture realistic rain rates and surface wind changes (and thereby surface fluxes). The evolution in the model near-surface moisture field is unrealistic, however, with an erroneous moisture enhancement inside the cold pool edge that is attributed to rain evaporation. This supports a further focus on the model representation of cold pool frontal dynamics and mixing.Plain Language Summary Cold pools of air develop near the surface over the ocean when it rains. This colder air can move along the surface because it is denser and cause new raining clouds to form. They help modify the types of clouds and convection present over the tropical oceans, and their depiction in climate models may help improve climate model simulations of tropical climate. In this study we use observations of cold pools, combined with radar imagery, to confirm that cold pools are more pronounced when the middle of the atmosphere, between 2 and 5 km, is also drier. Cold pools, because they help support updrafts, can also help explain why seemingly isolated clouds reaching ∼5 km, are relatively common in the Tropics. Modeling simulations have instead focused on how anomalous moisture near the surface from previous convection, through, for example, rain evaporation, may spawn more convection. We find that in one cloud-resolving simulation, the rain evaporation is too much, leading to an unrealistic moisture distribution. This may explain why to date the understanding of cold pool processes through models and observations have not always agreed.

No abstract