Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) are cell-signaling proteins with diverse functions in cell development, repair, and metabolism. The human FGF family consists of 22 structurally related members, which can be classified into three separate groups based on their action of mechanisms, namely: intracrine, paracrine/autocrine, and endocrine FGF subfamilies. FGF19, FGF21, and FGF23 belong to the hormone-like/endocrine FGF subfamily. These endocrine FGFs are mainly associated with the regulation of cell metabolic activities such as homeostasis of lipids, glucose, energy, bile acids, and minerals (phosphate/active vitamin D). Endocrine FGFs function through a unique protein family called klotho. Two members of this family, α-klotho, or β-klotho, act as main cofactors which can scaffold to tether FGF19/21/23 to their receptor(s) (FGFRs) to form an active complex. There are ongoing studies pertaining to the structure and mechanism of these individual ternary complexes. These studies aim to provide potential insights into the physiological and pathophysiological roles and therapeutic strategies for metabolic diseases. Herein, we provide a comprehensive review of the history, structure–function relationship(s), downstream signaling, physiological roles, and future perspectives on endocrine FGFs.

Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is a rare heterogeneous genetic retinal dystrophy disease, and despite years of research, known genetic mutations can explain only approximately 60% of RP cases. We sought to identify the underlying genetic mutations in a cohort of fourteen Indian autosomal recessive retinitis pigmentosa (arRP) families and 100 Indian sporadic RP cases. Whole-exome sequencing (WES) was performed on the probands of the arRP families and sporadic RP patients, and direct Sanger sequencing was used to confirm the causal mutations identified by WES. We found that the mutations of EYS are likely pathogenic mutations in two arRP families and eight sporadic patients. Specifically, we found a novel pair of compound heterozygous mutations and a novel homozygous mutation in two separate arRP families, and found two novel heterozygous mutations in two sporadic RP patients, whereas we found six novel homozygous mutations in six sporadic RP patients. Of these, one was a frameshift mutation, two were stop-gain mutations, one was a splicing mutation, and the others were missense mutations. In conclusion, our findings expand the spectrum of EYS mutations in RP in the Indian population and provide further support for the role of EYS in the pathogenesis and clinical diagnosis of RP.

Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is a heterogenous group of inherited retinal degenerations caused by mutations in at least 50 genes. To identify genetic mutations underlying autosomal recessive RP (arRP), we performed whole-exome sequencing study on two consanguineous marriage Indian families (RP-252 and RP-182) and 100 sporadic RP patients. Here we reported novel mutation in FAM161A in RP-252 and RP-182 with two patients affected with RP in each family. The FAM161A gene was identified as the causative gene for RP28, an autosomal recessive form of RP. By whole-exome sequencing we identified several homozygous genomic regions, one of which included the recently identified FAM161A gene mutated in RP28-linked arRP. Sequencing analysis revealed the presence of a novel homozygous frameshift mutation p.R592FsX2 in both patients of family RP-252 and family RP-182. In 100 sporadic Indian RP patients, this novel homozygous frameshift mutation p.R592FsX2 was identified in one sporadic patient ARRP-S-I-46 by whole-exome sequencing and validated by Sanger sequencing. Meanwhile, this homozygous frameshift mutation was absent in 1000 ethnicity-matched control samples screened by direct Sanger sequencing. In conclusion, we identified a novel homozygous frameshift mutations of RP28-linked RP gene FAM161A in Indian population.

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