This review of capillary electrophoresis methods for DNA analyses covers critical advances from 2009 to 2014, referencing 184 citations. Separation mechanisms based on free-zone capillary electrophoresis, Ogston sieving, and reptation are described. Two prevalent gel matrices for gel-facilitated sieving, which are linear polyacrylamide and polydimethylacrylamide, are compared in terms of performance, cost, viscosity, and passivation of electroosmotic flow. The role of capillary electrophoresis in the discovery, design, and characterization of DNA aptamers for molecular recognition is discussed. Expanding and emerging techniques in the field are also highlighted.

In an aqueous solution the phospholipids dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DMPC) and 1,2-dihexanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DHPC) self-assemble to form thermo-responsive non-Newtonian fluids (i.e., pseudogels) in which small temperature changes of 5-6 °C decrease viscosity dramatically. This characteristic is useful for sieving-based electrophoretic separations (e.g., of DNA), as the high viscosity of linear sieving additives, such as linear polyacrylamide or polyethylene oxide, hinders the introduction and replacement of the sieving agent in microscale channels. Advantages of utilizing phospholipid pseudogels for sieving are the ease with which they are introduced into the separation channel and the potential to implement gradient separations. Capillary electrophoresis separations of DNA are achieved with separation efficiencies ranging from 400,000 to 7,000,000 theoretical plates in a 25 μm i.d. fused silica capillary. Assessment of the phospholipid pseudogel with a Ferguson plot yields an apparent pore size of ~31 nm. Under isothermal conditions, Ogston sieving is achieved for DNA fragments smaller than 500 base pairs, whereas reptation-based transport occurs for DNA fragments larger than 500 base pairs. Nearly single base resolution of short tandem repeats relevant to human identification is accomplished with 30 min separations using traditional capillary electrophoresis instrumentation. Applications that do not require single base resolution are completed with faster separation times. This is demonstrated for a multiplex assay of biallelic single nucleotide polymorphisms relevant to warfarin sensitivity. The thermo-responsive pseudogel preparation described here provides a new innovation to sieving-based capillary separations.

Burkholderia pseudomallei and Burkholderia mallei, classified as category B priority pathogens, are significant human and animal pathogens that are highly infectious and broad-spectrum antibiotic resistant. Currently, the pathogenicity mechanisms utilized by Burkholderia are not fully understood, and correct diagnosis of B. pseudomallei and B. mallei infection remains a challenge due to limited detection methods. Here, we provide a comprehensive analysis of a set of 13 novel Burkholderia collagen-like proteins (Bucl) that were identified among B. pseudomallei and B. mallei select agents. We infer that several Bucl proteins participate in pathogenesis based on their noncollagenous domains that are associated with the components of a type III secretion apparatus and membrane transport systems. Homology modeling of the outer membrane efflux domain of Bucl8 points to a role in multi-drug resistance. We determined that bucl genes are widespread in B. pseudomallei and B. mallei; Fischer’s exact test and Cramer’s V2 values indicate that the majority of bucl genes are highly associated with these pathogenic species versus nonpathogenic B. thailandensis. We designed a bucl-based quantitative PCR assay which was able to detect B. pseudomallei infection in a mouse with a detection limit of 50 CFU. Finally, chromosomal mapping and phylogenetic analysis of bucl loci revealed considerable genomic plasticity and adaptation of Burkholderia spp. to host and environmental niches. In this study, we identified a large set of phylogenetically unrelated bucl genes commonly found in Burkholderia select agents, encoding predicted pathogenicity factors, detection targets, and vaccine candidates.

Aqueous phospholipid preparations comprised of 1,2‐dimyristoyl‐sn‐glycero‐3‐phosphocholine (DMPC) and 1,2‐dihexanoyl‐sn‐glycero‐3‐phosphocholine (DHPC) are prevalent materials for biological characterization and become gel‐like near physiological temperature, but have a low viscosity below 24°C. The rheology of 20% phospholipid preparations of [DMPC]/[DHPC] = 2.5 reveals that, under conditions utilized for fluid steering, the materials are shear‐thinning power‐law fluids with a power‐law index ranging from 0.30 through 0.90. Phospholipid preparations are utilized to steer fluids in microfluidic chips and support hydrodynamic delivery of sample across a double T injection region in a chip. The fact that the phospholipids are fully integrated as a valving material as well as a separation medium is demonstrated through the separation of linear oligosaccharides labeled with 1‐aminopyrene‐3,6,8‐trisulfonic acid.

Phospholipid additives are a cost-effective medium to separate deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) fragments and possess a thermally-responsive viscosity. This provides a mechanism to easily create and replace a highly viscous nanogel in a narrow bore capillary with only a 10°C change in temperature. Preparations composed of dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DMPC) and 1,2-dihexanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DHPC) self-assemble, forming structures such as nanodisks and wormlike micelles. Factors that influence the morphology of a particular DMPC-DHPC preparation include the concentration of lipid in solution, the temperature, and the ratio of DMPC and DHPC. It has previously been established that an aqueous solution containing 10% phospholipid with a ratio of [DMPC]/[DHPC]=2.5 separates DNA fragments with nearly single base resolution for DNA fragments up to 500 base pairs in length, but beyond this size the resolution decreases dramatically. A new DMPC-DHPC medium is developed to effectively separate and size DNA fragments up to 1500 base pairs by decreasing the total lipid concentration to 2.5%. A 2.5% phospholipid nanogel generates a resolution of 1% of the DNA fragment size up to 1500 base pairs. This increase in the upper size limit is accomplished using commercially available phospholipids at an even lower material cost than is achieved with the 10% preparation. The separation additive is used to evaluate size markers ranging between 200 and 1500 base pairs in order to distinguish invasive strains of Streptococcus pyogenes and Aspergillus species by harnessing differences in gene sequences of collagen-like proteins in these organisms. For the first time, a reversible stacking gel is integrated in a capillary sieving separation by utilizing the thermally-responsive viscosity of these self-assembled phospholipid preparations. A discontinuous matrix is created that is composed of a cartridge of highly viscous phospholipid assimilated into a separation matrix of low viscosity. DNA sample stacking is facilitated with longer injection times without sacrificing separation efficiency.