Cultural self-awareness refers to the awareness of how culture has influenced the self. This research investigated how such awareness might be related to cultural identification and well-being. In Study 1, we developed a scale measure that differentiated individuals' awareness of how culture has influenced them (cultural self-awareness) and how their own personality and personal experiences have influenced them (personal self-awareness). Factor analysis and item analysis showed a two-factor model with acceptable scale reliability. Study 2 showed that cultural self-awareness positively predicted well-being through higher cultural identification, whereas personal self-awareness positively predicted well-being through higher behavioral authenticity. Study 3 manipulated the valence of individuals' cultural experience. The indirect effect of cultural self-awareness on well-being was stronger when cultural experience was positive (vs. negative). Study 4 provided a specific cultural context for the well-being measures and replicated the findings of Studies 2 and 3. Implications on the link between culture and self were discussed.

This study investigated the role of cultural self-awareness, an individual’s awareness of culture’s influence on the self, on collective movement participation. We posited that individuals who were highly aware of their culture’s influence on them would more likely perceive self-relevance of cultural circumstances. In the context of a cultural threat, such perception of self-relevance would lead to psychological and behavioral reactions that affirm one’s collective identity. We tested our predictions during a collective political movement in Hong Kong. Results showed that among Hong Kong university students, the higher the cultural self-awareness, the more they participated in the collective movement. The relationship was mediated by increased pride in Hong Kong and a more exclusive Hong Kong identity. The findings highlighted the importance of metacognitive reflection of the self in collective processes.

Ethnic identity is a crucial developmental task for ethnic minority youth. The present study investigated the development of ethnic identity in a large sample of Mexican-origin youth ( N = 674) assessed biennially from age 10 to 19. Latent growth curve modeling was used to examine the trajectory of ethnic identity and its two facets: exploration (efforts to explore one’s ethnic group) and affirmation (positive connection to one’s ethnic group). Results showed a linear decline over time for ethnic identity and both facets; exploration declined more rapidly than affirmation. Using multigroup modeling, we tested whether the trajectories differ across gender and nativity. Compared to boys, girls’ ethnic identity, exploration, and affirmation decreased less. The trajectories did not differ for youth born in Mexico versus the United States. Discussion considers the impact of developmental, acculturative, and social–contextual processes on ethnic identity development as well unique features of our ethnic identity measure.

Schwartz (2013) proposed a model of societal culture in which societal culture is conceptualized as a latent construct that exists outside of individuals. With such conceptualization, Schwartz argued that the assumption of cultural sharedness would not be necessary for research on cross-national differences of personal values. Interestingly, the removal of the assumption of cultural sharedness can generate new research questions that can further the field’s understanding of the nature and function of cultural sharedness. This commentary explores several of these possibilities.