Enteroviral infections go usually unnoticed, even during pregnancy, yet some case histories and mouse experiments indicate that these viruses may be transmitted vertically. More frequently, however, transmission occurs by (fecal) contamination during and shortly after birth. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of maternal infection in mice (1) on gravidity outcome and (2) on subsequent challenge of the offspring with the same virus. CD1 outbred female mice were infected by the oral route with coxsackievirus B4 strain E2 or mock-infected at days 4, 10, or 17 of gestation. Weight and signs of sickness were noted daily. Pups were infected at day 25 after birth (4 days postweaning). Organs (brain, pancreas, and heart) were analyzed for viral RNA and histopathology. We observed that maternal infection at day 4 or day 17 of gestation had little effect on pregnancy outcome, whereas infection at day 10 affected dams and/or offspring. Infection of pups resulted in severe inflammation of the pancreas, but only when dams were previously infected, especially at day 17. The blood glucose levels were elevated. Because no trace of infection was found at the time of challenge, a role for immunopathology is suggested.

SUMMARYWe report the outcome of an 11-year programme monitoring sewage water and acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) cases as part of the World Health Organization (WHO) strategy for polio eradication in the Slovak Republic (SR). Polioviruses (PV) and non-polio enteroviruses (NPEV), prior to and after the change in polio vaccination strategy, were detected. Sewage treatment plant samples from 48 localities spread over the Western, Central and Eastern regions and clinical material from AFP cases were examined. The WHO standard procedures were followed with regard to virus isolation and identification. There were 538 commonly detected human enteroviruses (HEVs) including 213 (40%) coxsackie B viruses (CBV), 200 (37%) echoviruses and 113 (21%) Sabin-like PVs (PV1, 2, 3) including vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) isolates. The percentage of PV isolates fell from 66% to 30% during 2001–2005 and thereafter fell to zero. CBV5, CBV2 and echovirus 3 were the NPEVs endemic during the study period.

Coxsackievirus B4 strain E2 (CVB4-E2) and its association with type 1 diabetes (T1D) have been studied in experimental in vitro and in vivo murine models. CVB4-E2, known to be pancreotropic and diabetogenic in nature, is associated with acute pancreatitis in mice but shows differences in the induction of glycemia after intraperitoneal (i.p.) infection. Therefore, the aim of this work was to study the outcome of oral infection with CVB4-E2 in five mouse strains with different genetic backgrounds: two outbred (Swiss albino, CD1), two inbred (SJL, NOD) and one transgenic (NOD.SCID). Survival rates, fasting blood glucose, histopathology, viral titres and persistence were studied in selected organs and stool samples. Viral protein (VP1), proinflammatory cytokines, and interferon alpha (IFN-α) were analyzed by immunohistochemistry. We observed mortality only in infected NOD and NOD.SCID mice, with differing survival rates implying initial innate protection in the NOD.SCID mice and low virus clearance with replicating virus titres in the studied organs and stool up to day 40 post infection (p.i.). Independent of the mouse strain hyperglycemia, proinflammatory cytokines and histopathological changes were absent in the endocrine pancreas of infected mice. Only the pancreata of the dead NOD.SCID mice showed inflammation even in presence of IFN-α. Host-dependent viral RNA persistence was observed in all outbred mice. In conclusion, oral infection with CVB4-E2, despite the known affinity of this strain towards the pancreatic tissue and the presence of replicating virus, conferred total protection to the endocrine pancreas in all mice and failed to induce the proinflammatory cytokines studied by us.

SUMMARYEnteroviruses (EVs) infections occur worldwide. Although, infections by these viruses are often asymptomatic and go unnoticed, they can be shed in stool for several weeks. The EVs are associated with sporadic outbreaks and a wide range of clinical symptoms, occasionally accompanied with fatal consequences. Presently in the Slovak Republic (SR) recreational waters are tested only for bacterial indicators. Our aim was to monitor EVs in recreational waters. Water samples were collected during the years 2012-2014 from different recreational natural lakes in Central and West regions of SR. The samples were concentrated by centrifugation using the two-phase separation method recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) used for EVs surveillance in the treated sewage waste water. Each of the two phases collected from the samples was analysed by polymerase chain reaction for detection of EVs and primary sequencing was done. Our study demonstrated presence of EVs in three localities consecutively for three years, indicating a probability of constant local source of faecal contamination. This is the first monitoring report on the occurrence of EVs in the natural recreational waters in SR.

Aim of our work was firstly to determine the prevalence of anti-coxsackievirus antibodies during pregnancy. 217 serum samples were tested for antibodies by virus neutralization test against coxsackieviruses (CV) B1–B6, A7 and A9. The second aim was to investigate experimental transmission of virus to the fetus during pregnancy. Methods. Virus Neutralization Test, RT-PCR. Results. In the serological study, paired blood serum samples from 217 pregnant women were studied for antibodies against coxsackievirus serotypes (CVB1–CVB6, CVA7 and CVA9) in sera of pregnant women from selected areas of the Slovak Republic. Coxsackievirus B4 (CVB4) infection was most prevalent, followed by CVB3, CVA7, CVA9, CVB5, CVB2, CVB1 while coxsackievirus B6 (CVB6) was scarce. In 30 out of 217 cases (13.82 %) current infection was recorded. In the experimental murine study, in the second week of gravidity we observed presence of enteroviral RNA in the placenta and the intestine of the dead fetuses of the mice. Conclusions. Anti-CV antibodies were prevalent in the pregnant mothers indicating circulation of these viruses in the population. Current infection was shown in 13.82 % of studied cases. Presence of virus RNA in the organs of the unborn fetuses in the experimental infection indicates the possibility of transfer of the coxsackievirus B4-E2 infection from mother to child during antenatal developmen