A model of learning transfer that focused on the active role of the learner was developed and tested within a complex decision-making task. The study examined how individual differences, learning strategies, and training outcomes influenced transfer of learning to a more complex task. A sample of 93 undergraduate students participated in a 2-day radar operations study. Hierarchical regression analysis results indicated that mastery orientation was positively related to metacognitive activity of the learner. Metacognitive activity was significantly related to knowledge acquisition, skilled performance at the end of training, and self-efficacy. All 3 of these training outcomes were related to performance on the transfer task. Implications of these findings for research and practice are discussed.

This study updates the Baldwin and Ford (1988) review of the empirical articles published on training transfer. The updated review and analysis revolves around the four key limitations noted in the original review: (1) the criterion problem of how and when to measure training transfer, (2) the generalizability of results from training design studies, (3) the choice of which trainee characteristics to examine for their impact on transfer, and (4) the conceptualization and operationalization of work environment factors that can impact transfer. Twenty studies were found in the literature since the 1988 review on training transfer. An analysis of these studies found that progress has been made in addressing many of the limitations noted by Baldwin and Ford. This paper concludes with a discussion of future research directions for training transfer research relevant to each of the four areas of criterion measurement, training design, trainee characteristics, and work environment.

The nature of work and organizations is changing. Over three decades ago, Terreberry (1968) observed that future organizational environments would evolve to become increasingly turbulent and unpredictable. As we prepare to enter the next millennium, that future is upon us. The dynamics and uncertainty associated with the constellation of external forces that impact organizations create pressures for innovation, flexibility, and adaptability. Adaptability as an individual, team, and organizational capability is increasingly critical to effectiveness.The increasing rate of technological innovation, and the penetration of technology into all aspects of organizational operations, is changing the nature of work (Howell & Cooke, 1989). Work is increasingly complex, placing a high emphasis on cognitive skills and specialized expertise. It is increasingly mediated by computerized systems that link distributed experts together. From air travel, to medical diagnostics, emergency response, engineering design, and command and control, among many others, organizational functions that range from the mundane to esoteric are all dependent on teams of distributed experts operating via complex systems. Although teams are often co-located in time and space, the increasing connectivity of technology systems facilitates the creation of far-flung virtual teams that interact dynamically, but never actually meet face to face (Bell & Kozlowski, 1998).There are economic pressures for improved efficiency, cost-control, and effectiveness. Traditional training is typically conducted off-site. A substantial portion of training costs --upwards of 80% --is devoted to simply getting trainees to the site, maintaining them while there, and absorbing their lost productivity. Because off-site training is often decontextualized --that is, abstracted from the work setting --it also incurs potential problems of skill transfer that impede effectiveness.This convergence of forces --environmental, technological, and economic --is driving a reconceptualization of the nature of training systems. Training is shifting from an inefficient, time consuming, and expensive enterprise to one that can be delivered efficiently, as needed, and just-in-time. It is shifting from an off-site single episode to a systematic series of learning experiences that are integrated in the workplace and embedded in work technology. It is shifting from a primary emphasis on retention and reproduction to a broader emphasis that also includes the development of adaptive knowledge and skills (Kozlowski, 1998). Training will not be a separate activity, but a continuous activity that is an integral part of the workplace and its systems. This reconceptualization of training systems is highlighted by three key terms in our title which constitute the theoretical and application focus of this chapter:$ Integrate --to form, coordinate, or blend into a functioning or unified whole; $ Embed --to enclose closely; to make something an integral part of; $ Adapt --to make fit; implies a modificati...

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