Disputing and talking-out behaviors of individual pupils and entire classroom groups in special education classes and regular classes from white middle-class areas and from all black poverty areas ranging from the first grade to junior high school were studied. The classroom teacher in each case acted as the experimenter and as an observer. Various means of recording behaviors were used and reliability of observation was checked by an outside observer, another teacher, a teacher-aide, a student, or by using a tape recorder. Observation sessions varied from 15 min to an entire school day. After baseline rates were obtained, extinction of inappropriate disputing or talking-out behaviors and reinforcement of appropriate behavior with teacher attention, praise and in some cases a desired classroom activity or a surprise at the end of the week brought a decrease in undesired verbalizations. A reversal of contingencies brought a return to high levels of inappropriate talking with a return to low levels when reinforcement for appropriate talking was reinstated. The experiments demonstrated that teachers in a variety of classroom settings could obtain reliable observational records and carry out experimental manipulations successfully using resources available in most schools.A number of studies have been reported in which the systematic application of contingent teacher attention has been shown to be an effective means of modifying inappropriate school behavior. Hall, Lund, and Jackson (1968) and Broden, Bruce, Mitchell, Carter, and Hall (1970) demonstrated that teacher attention could be used effectively to modify disruptive and dawdling behaviors of individual elementary school pupils. Hall, Panyan, Rabon, and Broden (1968) showed that increasing teacher attention contingent on appropriate behavior was effective in helping beginning teachers to gain classroom control. Thomas, Becker, and Armstrong (1968) and Madsen, Becker, and Thomas (1968) showed 'This research was partially supported by the Na- The behaviors selected for modification were primarily "talking-out" behaviors which disrupted the class and were disturbing to the teachers. The fact that this class of behaviors is of concern to teachers is born out by the fact that 14 teachers of a total of 60 selected talking out, arguing, or other verbal outbursts as a behavior to modify when given the op-141 1971, 4, 141-149 NUMBER 2 (SUMMER 1971)

When making inferences about similar others, people anchor and adjust away from themselves (Tamir & Mitchell, 2013). However, research on relational self theory (Andersen & Chen, 2002) suggests the possibility of using knowledge about others as an anchor when they are more similar to a target. We investigated whether social inferences are made on the basis of significant other knowledge through an anchoring and adjustment process, and whether anchoring on a significant other is more effortful than anchoring on the self. Participants answered questions about their likes and habits, as well as the likes and habits of a significant other, a target similar to their significant other, and a yoked control. We found that prediction differences between the significant other and similar target led to longer response times, and we found the opposite effect for self and target differences, suggesting anchoring and adjustment from the significant other rather than the self. These effects were moderated by the source-relative salience of the dimension being evaluated. The evidence was mixed with respect to the question of whether anchoring on a significant other is more effortful than anchoring on the self.

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