Ambient operation poses a challenge to atomic force microscopy because in contrast to operation in vacuum or liquid environments, the cantilever dynamics change dramatically from oscillating in air to oscillating in a hydration layer when probing the sample. We demonstrate atomic resolution by imaging of the KBr(001) surface in ambient conditions by frequency-modulation atomic force microscopy with a cantilever based on a quartz tuning fork (qPlus sensor) and analyze both long-and short-range contributions to the damping. The thickness of the hydration layer increases with relative humidity; thus varying humidity enables us to study the influence of the hydration layer thickness on cantilever damping. Starting with measurements of damping versus amplitude, we analyzed the signal and the noise characteristics at the atomic scale. We then determined the optimal amplitude which enabled us to acquire high-quality atomically resolved images.

Imaging at the atomic scale using atomic force microscopy in biocompatible environments is an ongoing challenge. We demonstrate atomic resolution of graphite and hydrogen-intercalated graphene on SiC in air. The main challenges arise from the overall surface cleanliness and the water layers which form on almost all surfaces. To further investigate the influence of the water layers, we compare data taken with a hydrophilic bulk-silicon tip to a hydrophobic bulk-sapphire tip. While atomic resolution can be achieved with both tip materials at moderate interaction forces, there are strong differences in force versus distance spectra which relate to the water layers on the tips and samples. Imaging at very low tip-sample interaction forces results in the observation of large terraces of a naturally occurring stripe structure on the hydrogen-intercalated graphene. This structure has been previously reported on graphitic surfaces that are not covered with disordered adsorbates in ambient conditions (i.e., on graphite and bilayer graphene on SiC, but not on monolayer graphene on SiC). Both these observations indicate that hydrogen-intercalated graphene is close to an ideal graphene sample in ambient environments.

We study epitaxial graphene on the 6H-SiC(0001) surface under ambient conditions using frequency-modulation atomic force microscopy. We observe large terraces with a self-assembled stripe structure within a highly adsorbate covered surface on top of the graphene. To identify the origin of the structure, we compare the experimental data on graphene with calculations and experiments on graphite that predict the formation of a solid-gas monolayer in the solid-liquid interface of hydrophobic surfaces.

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Characterization and imaging at the atomic scale with atomic force microscopy in biocompatible environments is an ongoing challenge. We demonstrate atomically resolved imaging of the calcite (101̅4) surface plane using stiff quartz cantilevers ("qPlus sensors", stiffness k = 1280 N/m) equipped with sapphire tips in ambient conditions without any surface preparation. With 10 atoms in one surface unit cell, calcite has a highly complex surface structure comprising three different chemical elements (Ca, C, and O). We obtain true atomic resolution of calcite in air at relative humidity ranging from 20% to 40%, imaging atomic steps and single atomic defects. We observe a great durability of sapphire tips with their Mohs hardness of 9, only one step below diamond. Depending on the state of the sapphire tip, we resolve either the calcium or the oxygen sublattice. We determine the tip termination by comparing the experimental images with simulations and discuss the possibility of chemical tip identification in air. The main challenges for imaging arise from the presence of water layers, which form on almost all surfaces and have the potential to dissolve the crystal surface. Frequency shift versus distance spectra show the presence of at least three ordered hydration layers. The measured height of the first hydration layer corresponds well to X-ray diffraction data and molecular dynamic simulations, namely, ∼220 pm. For the following hydration layers we measure ∼380 pm for the second and third layer, ending up in a total hydration layer thickness of at least 1 nm. Understanding the influence of water layers and their structure is important for surface segregation, surface reactions including reconstructions, healing of defects, and corrosion.