Após mais de dois anos do início da revolta Síria, o embate entre governo e oposição continua intenso. A dificuldade de se quebrar o impasse entre os atores envolvidos reside na complexa rede de alianças e interesses que cercam a Síria. Este artigo abordará a crise síria em seu aspecto multidimensional, reforçando o papel das questões confessionais, históricas e geográficas do conflito. Para isto, será necessário um olhar em três níveis de análise: o doméstico, o regional e o sistêmico.
This article attempts to map the reach of key universal norms and rules of human rights law in international society while also mapping, at the same time, specific regional interpretations and practices of such norms. By mapping the normative architecture of the primary institution of international law through its key human rights’ universal norms and rules, it is possible to undertake a geographic analysis of its diffusion and density throughout international society. Hence, it is also possible to visually assess the reach of norms we take for granted as being universal. On the other hand, the mapping of regional interpretations and practices of ‘global’ norms allows identifying if these regionalisms do construct coexistent regional clusters of different ‘international’ normative systems within the system-level institution governing international society. This mapping exercise hopes to contribute to the English School research agenda and its discussions of regions by trying to trace a clearer picture of the normative and institutional borders within international society and thus provide an additional tool to understand how regional norms and practice constitute, interact and redefine the global international society.
The 19th century was a time of social and political upheaval for the Ottoman Empire. To contend with dwindling territories, uprisings, unrest, and international military, political, and economic pressure, it had to overcome structural deficiencies in the armed forces, economy, and State bureaucracy that kept it lagging behind its European counterparts. The modernizing impetus ultimately took the form of full-fledged legal and institutional reform by mid-century, transforming but also unsettling the Ottoman State and society. In this article we discuss a central component of those reforms and of the international relations of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century: the legal status of non-Moslem minorities. We frame our discussion in the analysis of two moments: the official recognition of the Greek-Catholic (Melkite) religious community in 1848 and the sectarian civil conflict in Mount Lebanon and Damascus in 1860. The intersecting vectors of economical, religious and political interests in their local, regional and international dimensions will be fleshed out, evincing a more nuanced and multilayered, and less monolithic and state-centered, approach toward the international relations of the late Ottoman Empire and the working of its institutions.
A Alemanha, após o seu processo de unificação, concluído em 1871, passou por um intenso crescimento e desenvolvimento até as vésperas da Primeira Guerra Mundial. Sempre orientados por uma percepção da distribuição de poder dentro do sistema internacional, seus líderes procuraram implementar uma política externa visando a ampliar o poder do país de forma a encontrar um melhor posicionamento relativo no sistema. Primeiramente, Bismarck buscou a manutenção do status quo pós-Guerra Franco-Prussiana, cujo resultado colocou a Alemanha em posição destacada na Europa. Já sob Guilherme II, uma política externa mais ambiciosa procurou promover internacionalmente o Império como uma potência de nível mundial. Condições internas e externas facilitaram e/ou dificultaram este processo. A elaboração de uma política de alianças, a intensificação da extração e da mobilização de recursos sociais, o estímulo a um nacionalismo de Estado, o combate a ideologias tidas como perigosas e o fortalecimento das estruturas e instituições do novo Império Alemão foram elementos extremamente importantes para transformar o que outrora era um emaranhado de Estados sem muita relevância política em uma potência mundial já em fins do século XIX.
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