Breast cancer is a common cancer leading to many deaths among females. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and interleukin-8 (IL-8) are two highly expressed inflammatory mediators to be induced by the protein kinase C (PKC) signaling via various inflammatory stimuli and both contribute significantly to cancer metastasis/progression. Glucosamine has been shown to act as an anti-inflammation molecule. The aim of this study was to clarify the role and acting mechanism of glucosamine during the PKC-regulation of COX-2/IL-8 expression and the associated impact on breast cancer. In MCF-7 breast cancer cells, glucosamine effectively suppresses the PKC induction of COX-2 and IL-8 promoter activity, mRNA and protein levels, as well as the production of prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) and IL-8. Glucosamine is able to promote COX-2 protein degradation in a calpain-dependent manner and IL-8 protein degradation in calpain-dependent and proteasome-dependent manners. The MAPK and NF-κB pathways are involved in PKC-induced COX-2 expression, but only the NF-κB pathway is involved in PKC-induced IL-8 expression. Glucosamine attenuates PKC-mediated IκBα phosphorylation, nuclear NF-κB translocation, and NF-κB reporter activation. Both PGE(2) and IL-8 promote cell proliferation and IL-8 induces cell migration; thus, glucosamine appears to suppress PKC-induced cell proliferation and migration. Furthermore, glucosamine significantly inhibits the growth of breast cancer xenografts and this is accompanied by a reduction in COX-2 and IL-8 expression. In conclusion, glucosamine seems to attenuate the inflammatory response in vitro and in vivo and this occurs, at least in part by targeting to the NF-κB signaling pathway, resulting in an inhibition of breast cancer cell growth.

No abstract

Ovulation is a critical inflammation-like event that is central to ovarian physiology. IL-1β is an immediate early pro-inflammatory cytokine that regulates production of several other inflammatory mediators, such as cyclooxygenase 2 (COX)-2 and IL-8. NS-398 is a selective inhibitor of COX-2 bioactivity and thus this drug is able to mitigate the COX-2-mediated production of downstream prostaglandins and the subsequent inflammatory response. Here we have investigated the action of NS-398 using a human ovarian granulosa cell line, KGN, by exploring IL-1β-regulated COX-2 and IL-8 expression. First, NS-398, instead of reducing inflammation, appeared to further enhance IL-1β-mediated COX-2 and IL-8 production. Using selective inhibitors targeting various signaling molecules, MAPK and NF-κB pathways both seemed to be involved in the impact of NS-398 on IL-1β-induced COX-2 and IL-8 expression. NS-398 also promoted IL-1β-mediated NF-κB p65 nuclear translocation but had no effect on IL-1β-activated MAPK phosphorylation. Flow cytometry analysis demonstrated that NS-398, in combination with IL-1β, significantly enhanced cell cycle progression involving IL-8. Our findings demonstrate a clear pro-inflammatory function for NS-398 in the IL-1β-mediated inflammatory response of granulosa cells, at least in part, owing to its augmenting effect on the IL-1β-induced activation of NF-κB.

Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and IL-8 are two inflammatory mediators induced by protein kinase C (PKC) via various stimuli. Both contribute significantly to cancer progression. Bufalin, a major active component of the traditional Chinese medicine Chan Su, is known to induce apoptosis in various cancer cells. This study clarifies the role and mechanism of bufalin action during PKC regulation of COX-2/IL-8 expression and investigates the associated impact on breast cancer. Using MB-231 breast cancer cells, bufalin augments PKC induction of COX-2/IL-8 at both the protein and mRNA levels, and the production of prostaglandin E (PGE) and IL-8. The MAPK and NF-κB pathways are involved in both the PKC-mediated and bufalin-promoted PKC regulation of COX-2/IL-8 production. Bufalin increases PKC-induced MAPKs phosphorylation and NF-κB nuclear translocation. PGE stimulates the proliferation/migration of breast cancer cells. Furthermore, PKC-induced matrix metalloproteinase 3 expression is enhanced by bufalin. Bufalin significantly enhances breast cancer xenograft growth, which is accompanied by an elevation in COX-2/IL-8 expression. In conclusion, bufalin seems to promote the inflammatory response in vitro and in vivo, and this occurs, at least in part, by targeting the MAPK and NF-κB pathways, which then enhances the growth of breast cancer cells.

Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and interleukin-8 (IL-8) are two important inflammatory mediators in ovulation. Ghrelin may modulate inflammatory signaling via growth hormone secretagogue receptors. We investigated the role of ghrelin in KGN human ovarian granulosa cells using protein kinase C (PKC) activator phorbol 12, 13-didecanoate (PDD) and synthetic ghrelin analog growth hormone releasing peptide-2 (GHRP-2). GHRP-2 attenuated PDD-induced expression of protein and mRNA, the promoter activity of COX-2 and IL-8 genes, and the secretion of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and IL-8. GHRP-2 promoted the degradation of PDD-induced COX-2 and IL-8 proteins with the involvement of proteasomal and lysosomal pathways. PDD-mediated COX-2 production acts via the p38, c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) pathways; PDD-mediated IL-8 production acts via the p38, JNK and ERK pathways. GHRP-2 reduced the PDD-induced phosphorylation of p38 and JNK and activator protein 1 (AP-1) reporter activation and PDD-induced NF-κB nuclear translocation and reporter activation. The inhibitors of mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase-1 (MKP-1) and protein phosphatase 2 (PP2A) reduced the inhibitory effect of GHRP-2 on PDD-induced COX-2 and IL-8 expression. Our findings demonstrate an anti-inflammatory role for ghrelin (GHRP-2) in PKC-mediated inflammation of granulosa cells, at least in part, due to its inhibitory effect on PKC-induced activation of p38, JNK and NF-κB, possibly by targeting to MKP-1 and PP2A.