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Dysfunction within large-scale brain networks as the basis for movement disorders is an accepted hypothesis. The treatment options for restoring network function are limited. Non-invasive brain stimulation techniques such as repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation are now being studied to modify the network. Transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) is also a portable, cost-effective, and non-invasive way of network modulation. Transcranial direct current stimulation and transcranial alternating current stimulation have been studied in Parkinson's disease, dystonia, tremor, and ataxia. Transcranial pulsed current stimulation and transcranial random noise stimulation are not yet studied enough. The literature in the use of these techniques is intriguing, yet many unanswered questions remain. In this review, we highlight the studies using these four potential tES techniques and their electrophysiological basis and consider the therapeutic implication in the field of movement disorders. The objectives are to consolidate the current literature, demonstrate that these methods are feasible, and encourage the application of such techniques in the near future. Keywords: non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS), transcranial electrical stimulation (tES), transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS), transcranial pulsed current stimulation (tPCS), transcranial random noise stimulation (tRNS)

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This paper provides new insights regarding the transfer of information between input signal and the output of neurons. Simulations of the Hodgkin-Huxley (HH) model combined with computational techniques are used to estimate this transfer of information. Our analysis shows that comparatively, mutual information (MI) between input signal and sodium flux is about two times that between input signal and output spikes during each spike within a millisecond-level time domain. This higher transfer of information provided by ionic fluxes extends the working frequency domain of neural cells beyond those accessible to information transfer within spikes alone.