Bovine mastitis caused by Prototheca spp. can assume high significance because of economic losses and the potential risk to public health. Studies on the susceptibility of Prototheca spp. to antimicrobials have demonstrated its high level of resistance. We report the susceptibility of bovine isolates of Prototheca wickerhamii and Prototheca zopfii to amphotericin B and nystatin, 2 antifungal agents commonly used in the control of protothecosis, and discuss the results. After subculture, minimum inhibitory concentrations of both antifungal drugs were determined using macrodilution and agar diffusion methods. The inoculum concentration was standardized by determination of colony-forming units per milliliter. Nystatin showed more efficacy than amphotericin B in inhibiting P. wickerhamii growth. In contrast, growth inhibition of P. zopfii was similar for both antifungal agents. This study demonstrates different in vitro susceptibility patterns of P. wickerhamii and P. zopfii, reinforcing the necessity for more investigation into drugs that can be used with clinical efficacy.

Mucins and mucin-associated carbohydrates have a distinct expression pattern that can be modified under pathological conditions. Normal gastric mucosa expresses MUC1 and MUC5AC in foveolar epithelium and MUC6 in the glands. Lewis type-1 chain antigens (Le(a) and Le(b)) are expressed in foveolar epithelium, whereas Lewis type-2 chain antigens (Le(x) and Le(y)) are expressed in the glands. In this study we used monoclonal antibodies to evaluate the pattern of mucins and Lewis type-1 carbohydrates in intestinal metaplasia (IM) and compared it with IM types determined using histochemistry. In type-I or complete IM we found expression of MUC2 intestinal mucin and decreased/absent expression of MUC1, MUC5AC and MUC6. In type-II/III or incomplete IM there was co-expression of MUC2 and the mucins expressed in the stomach. No major differences were detected among the three IM types regarding expression of Lewis antigens. Furthermore we observed that sialylated compounds other than sialyl-Le(a) are responsible for histochemical detection of sialomucins and that sulpho-Le(a/c) is expressed in the presence or absence of sulphomucins detected using histochemistry. We conclude that mucin immunohistochemistry may replace classic histochemistry for the classification of IM into complete and incomplete types. The present study challenges the distinction of type-II from type-III IM since we did not observe major differences in the expression profile of mucins and Lewis type-1 carbohydrates. Finally, it seems necessary to evaluate the predictive value of IM according to the presence of specific sulphated carbohydrates (e.g. sulpho-Le(a/c)) rather than histochemically detected sulphomucins.

For a successful pregnancy to occur, a predecidualized receptive endometrium must be invaded by placental differentiated cells (extravillous trophoblast cells (EVTs)) and, at the same time, continue decidualization. EVT invasion is aimed at anchoring the placenta to the maternal uterus and ensuring local blood supply increase necessary to provide normal placental and foetal development. The first is achieved by migrating through the maternal endometrium and deeper into the myometrium, while the second by transforming uterine spiral arteries into large vessels. This process is a tightly regulated battle comprising interests of both the mother and the foetus. Invading EVTs are required to perform a scope of functions: move, adhere, proliferate, differentiate, interact, and digest the extracellular matrix (ECM); tolerate hypoxia; transform the maternal spiral arteries; and die by apoptosis. All these functions are modulated by their surrounding microenvironment: oxygen, soluble factors (e.g., cytokines, growth factors, and hormones), ECM proteins, and reactive oxygen species. A deeper comprehension of oxidative uterine microenvironment contribution to trophoblast function will be addressed in this review.

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