Osteoporosis is a condition of reduced total bone mass per unit volume for the normal ratio of bone mineral to bone matrix. The present work deals with the investigation and evaluation of osteoporosis in ancient Egyptians of two social classes from the Old Kingdom in Giza. The aims of this study are to provide information about the lifestyle and health status of ancient Egyptians, and to detect the causes of osteoporosis. The material consisted of 74 skeletons (43 males and 31 females) from two different social classes (high officials and workers). Skeletons were excavated from the Giza Necropolis and belonged to the Old Kingdom (2687-2191 BC). Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) was used to measure bone mineral density (BMD) at different skeletal sites (radius, fourth lumbar vertebra and head of femur). Moreover, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to show the microarchitectural structure of the bone. Results showed a significant decrease of BMD values in old age groups compared with younger ones in both sexes. In addition, SEM of trabecular bone in osteoporotic cases demonstrated that the horizontal trabeculae were more affected than the vertical trabeculae. Comparison between high officials and workers revealed that osteoporosis was more frequent in male workers than in male high officials, and in female high officials than in female workers. An elevated prevalence of osteoporosis among male workers may be related to the effects of nutritional stress and excessive workload, while a sedentary lifestyle may have played a role in the occurrence of osteoporosis among female high officials. Moreover, osteoporosis occurs earlier and more frequently in females than males, which may be related to the hormonal changes that accompany the menopause in females. This study emphasises the importance of gender and lifestyle factors in influencing the severity of osteoporosis. Age-related bone loss at most skeletal sites is noted in both sexes of ancient Egyptians.

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The spine can provide a large amount of information about an individual's physical condition and possible lifestyle through palaeopathological investigations. The aim of this research was to study spinal diseases among Greco-Roman ancient Egyptians from Bahriyah Oasis, and to compare them with those from Giza of the Old Kingdom. The material used in the study included 809 single vertebrae and 77 adult sacra of ancient Egyptians from the Greco-Roman period (332-30 BC) that were excavated from Bahriyah Oasis. The spinal elements were examined for pathological conditions, degenerative diseases, trauma, congenital abnormalities, infectious diseases and neoplasms. The most common lesions of the spine were those due to degenerative processes. The articular facets were more affected than the vertebral bodies. Compression fractures of the bodies, mostly due to osteoporosis, were found in 1.44% and 5.07% of thoracic and lumbar vertebrae respectively. The percentage of spina bifida occulta among ancient Egyptians from Bahriyah Oasis was 62.33%, while among those from Giza was only 3.33%. Few cases of lumbar spondylolysis and one case of DISH were recorded. No cases of infectious or neoplastic diseases were found.

Zusammenfassung Genetische Studien bei Azoospermie‐Patienten mit Klinefelter‐Syndrom‐Symptomatik Bei 82 Männern mit Azoospermie und Klinefelter‐Symptomatik in der Hodenbiopsie wurden genetische, histopathologische, anthropometrische und klinische Untersuchungen durchgeführt. Die Ergebnisse deuten daraufhin, daß die Geschlechtschromatinwerte nicht als Ersatz für die Chromosomenanalyse gelten können, wenn ein Mosaik ausgeschlossen werden soll. Die Untersuchung zeigt weiterhin eine deutliche phaenotypische Überlappung zwischen chromatinpositiven und chromatinnegativen Befunden mit Klinefelter‐Symptomatik. Diese Überlappung kommt vor bei dem klinischen Erscheinungsbild, welches durch die Anthropometrie dokumentiert wird und durch die histopathologischen Befunde der Hodenbiopsie, vor allem aber betrifft es die Bedeutung der genetischen Befunde. Fälle ohne Chromosomenaberration, bei denen die Autoren einen Umweltfaktor für aetiologisch bedeutsam halten, werden als Phaenokopien der genetischen Störung beschrieben.