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Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by fungi. These compounds have different structures and target different organs, acting at different steps of biological processes inside the cell. Around 32 mycotoxins have been identified in fungal Penicillium spp. isolated from food and feed. Some of these species are important pathogens which contaminate food, such as maize, cereals, soybeans, sorghum, peanuts, among others. These microorganisms can be present in different steps of the food production process, such as plant growth, harvest, drying, elaboration, transport, and packaging. Although some Penicillium spp. are pathogens, some of them are used in elaboration of processed foods, such as cheese and sausages. This review summarises the Penicillium spp. mycotoxin toxicity, focusing mainly on the subgenus Penicillium, frequently found in food and feed. Toxicity is reviewed both in animal models and cultured cells. Finally, some aspects of their regulations are discussed.

The cost of cellulase enzymes is a main contributor to the operational cost of a biorefinery producing ethanol from lignocellulosic material. Therefore, onsite production of enzymes using low-value substrates might be an option to make a bio-based facility more economical, while improving environmental sustainability. Food manufacturing wastes (FMWs), such as olive mill solids, tomato pomace, and grape pomace, are some of the main wastes produced by the food industry in Chile. FMWs are mostly composed of lignocellulosic material, which is primarily made of cellulose. A fungal strain obtained from olive stones was identified as a Trichoderma sp. and characterized by molecular and morphological techniques. This strain was able to grow on three FMWs in both liquid and solid cultures. In liquid cultures, cellulase and β-glucosidase activities from the culture supernatants were quantified. Identification of extracellular proteins using mass spectrometry revealed the presence of endoglucanases, exoglucanases, and β-glucosidases. Cellulase production from agroindustrial residues could be an excellent opportunity to utilize FMWs as well as decrease enzyme production costs in biorefinery processes.

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