Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are diverse group of natural proteins present in animals, plants, insects and bacteria. These peptides are responsible for defense of host from pathogenic organisms. Chemical, enzymatic and recombinant techniques are used for the synthesis of antimicrobial peptides. These peptides have been found to be an alternative to the chemical preservatives. Currently, nisin is the only antimicrobial peptide, which is widely utilized in the preservation of food. Antimicrobial peptides can be used alone or in combination with other antimicrobial, essential oils and polymeric nanoparticles to enhance the shelf-life of food. This review presents an overview on different types of antimicrobial peptides, purification techniques, mode of action and application in food preservation.

Botrytis cinerea (anamorph of Botryotinia fuckeliana) causes gray mold on a high number of crop plants including grapes. In this study, we investigated the genetic properties of a grape pathogenic population of B. cinerea in the area of Eger, Hungary. A total of 109 isolates from 12 areas were sampled. Based on the sequence of the beta-tubulin (tub1) locus, they all belong to group II, a phylogenetic species within B. cinerea. Seventy-four isolates were classified as transposa, with both the Flipper and Boty transposons, and 10 were classified as vacuma, lacking both transposons. The remaining isolates contained either only Flipper (13) or Boty (12). Multilocus analysis of sequences from tub1 and two other loci (elongation factor 1-alpha, tef1, and a minisatellite from the intron of an ATPase, MSB1) led to poor phylogenetic resolution of strains in individual clades. Analysis of five microsatellites (Bc2, Bc3, Bc5, Bc6, and Bc10) resulted in 55 microsatellite haplotypes within the 109 strains. No correlation was detected among individual haplotypes and the presence/absence of Flipper and/or Boty, the geographic origin, or the year of isolation. Application of the index of association, the chi-square test, and the phi test consistently indicated that the population of Hungarian isolates of B. cinerea undergoes sexual reproduction. However, the index of association test suggested the presence of some clonality, and the fixation index showed a low or occasionally moderate level of fixation in the Flipper populations. We conclude that the B. cinerea populations in Hungary consist of a strongly recombining group II phylogenetic species.

Phoma is a highly polyphyletic genus with its unclear species boundaries. The conventional system of identification is functional but it has its limitations. Besides morphological studies, chemotaxonomy, secondary metabolite and protein profiling have been assessed for the classification and identification of these fungi. Molecular datasets have provided a better outlook towards the phylogenetic and evolutionary trends of Phoma. Molecular markers such as ITS-rDNA, tubulin, actin, translation elongation factor have been widely used by the taxonomists to demarcate species. However, outcomes gained up till now represent preliminary step towards the study of Phoma systematics and a combined approach would be beneficial in the understanding of this polyphyletic group members. Lately, on the base of molecular phylogeny of the type species of the seven Phoma sections a new teleomorph family, Didymellaceae has been established, besides the Phaeosphaeriaceae related to sect. Paraphoma anamorphs, and the Leptosphaeriaceae to sect. Heterospora anamorphs. The estimated ratio is about 70 % of the recognized Phoma-like species can be associated with the Didymellaceae ascomycetous family.

Phoma Sacc. is an ubiquitous fungus, which has been reported from plants, soil, human beings, animals, and air. Some species of Phoma like P. sorghina, P. herbarum, P. exigua var. exigua, P. macrostoma, P. glomerata, Phoma macdonaldii, Phoma tracheiphila, Phoma proboscis, P. multirostrata, and Phoma foveata secrete phytotoxin and anthraquinone pigments as secondary metabolites, which have great potential for the biological control of weeds, and can be exploited for the production of mycopesticides, agrophytochemicals, and dyes. Some other species produce pharmaceutically active metabolites, viz., Sirodesmins, Phomenoic acid, Phomenolactone, Phomadecalins, Phomactin A, Phomasetin, Squalestatin-1 (S1), and Squalestatin-2 (S2). The secondary metabolites secreted by some species of Phoma are antitumor, antimicrobial, and anti-HIV. Equisetin and Phomasetin obtained from species of Phoma are useful against AIDS. The main goal of the present review is to discuss secondary metabolite production by species of Phoma and their utilization as antibiotics and as biocontrol agents.

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