Previous studies in taekwondo have considered the use of the manual scoring system or the electronic system with only the use of the electronic body protector. The objective of this study was to analyze the relationship between the color protectors and success in 1,327 taekwondo matches from six World Grand Prix Series of two 4-year Olympic periods when electronic body and head protectors are used. In the total sample, the results did not show a relationship between the match outcome and the color of the protectors (p = 0.97, C = 0.001). For the individual six editions, the results showed a positive and strong relationship between wearing blue protectors and winning matches and one between wearing red protectors and winning matches (p = 0.001, C = 0.19; p = 0.001; C = 0.19). Regarding the weight categories, 8 and 5 of 48 showed higher percentages of blue and red winners, respectively. Regarding sex, male competitors showed a positive relationship between blue color and winning the match in 6 of 24 weight categories, and wearing red and winning the match was shown in 2 of 24 weight categories. Female competitors showed a positive relationship between blue color and winning the match in 2 of 24 weight categories, and wearing red and winning the match was shown in 3 of 24 weight categories. When it comes to the influence of being a seeded athlete, the results did show a significant confounding effect on the color of the protectors worn by the winner of the match in 2 of 13 weight categories in which a color effect was observed (p = 0.02, C = 0.28; p = 0.02, C = 0.28). In conclusion, wearing red does not provide a higher chance of winning the match. It seems that seeing red has a stronger effect than wearing red, especially in male contenders. Moreover, being a seeded athlete does not explain the result of the match. It seems that the introduction of the electronic helmet protector, in addition to the electronic body protector, made the scoring system more objective, decreasing the advantage of wearing red in winning matches.

Relative Age Effects (RAEs) appear largely throughout youth soccer. However, little is known about how RAEs at youth levels can impact selection and performance at senior levels.Accordingly, the purpose of this study was twofold: (a) to provide further test of RAEs by exploring the birth quarter (BQ) distribution of 2,030 Italian players born from 1975 to 2001 (both years included) who have played in any of the Youth National Italian Soccer Teams (U15-U21); and (b)to investigate how RAEs influence future career outcomes, by exploring the BQ distribution of players who completed the transition from youth levels to the Senior National Team (n=182) and those who eventually achieved the Super International Achievers (SIA) status (i.e., plating at a senior level in a UEFA European Championship and/or FIFA World Championship; n=58). Chisquare statistics revealed a significantly skewed (all P value <0.0001) BQ distributions for all Youth squads (BQ1=41.4% vs. BQ4=10.8%), and for the cohort of players who completed the transition (P=0.003). In contrast, results from the Odds Ratios (ORs) highlighted how BQ4s are more likely to transition from youth-to-senior compared to BQ1s (ORs from 2.81 to 4.31). Results showed relatively older players remain overrepresented at senior level likely due to a residual bias effect. Whereas relatively younger players who were able to overcome selection process at youth levels had the highest likelihood of competing at senior levels. Therefore, involving players career trajectories in RAEs studies is needed to understand how relative age impacts career outcomes of early selected players.

Although research on the effect of color in taekwondo has involved several international competitions, no previous study has investigated the presence of this phenomenon in national-level competitions. The main objective of this study was to analyze the relationship between the color protectors and success in 1155 taekwondo matches of the Italian and Uzbekistan Senior Championships (ITA-SC and UZB-SC) (2019 and 2021). The results showed no relationship between the color protectors and the match outcome, in both ITA-SC and UZB-SC (p = 0.71, V = 0.01; p = 0.61, V = 0.02). Moreover, no relationship emerged between the color protectors and the match outcome in the four editions of the SC. Stratifying analyses by weight category and sex, males showed positive relationships between the color blue/red and winning the match in 3 and 1 of 16 weight categories, respectively. Contrary, females showed positive relationships between the color blue/red and winning the match in 1 and 3 of 16 weight categories, respectively. Analyzing the two national contexts found that, in both the Italian and Uzbek contexts, matches in 2 and 2 of 16 weight categories were won by athletes wearing blue and red protectors, respectively. Significant relationships emerged between the color blue and winning the match with small asymmetry in the men’s UZB-SC and between the color red and winning the match with large asymmetry in the female ITA-SC. The implementation of the electronic point recording system for the body and head has had a positive impact on fairness in national taekwondo competitions, did not detect any effect of color related to cultural context, and did not allow for the color red to tip the scales between losing and winning in matches between athletes of similar ability and strength.

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