Tissue damage caused by exposure to pathogens, chemicals and physical agents such as ionizing radiation triggers production of generic "danger" signals that mobilize the innate and acquired immune system to deal with the intrusion and effect tissue repair with the goal of maintaining the integrity of the tissue and the body. Ionizing radiation appears to do the same, but less is known about the role of "danger" signals in tissue responses to this agent. This review deals with the nature of putative "danger" signals that may be generated by exposure to ionizing radiation and their significance. There are a number of potential consequences of "danger" signaling in response to radiation exposure. "Danger" signals could mediate the pathogenesis of, or recovery from, radiation damage. They could alter intrinsic cellular radiosensitivity or initiate radioadaptive responses to subsequent exposure. They may spread outside the locally damaged site and mediate bystander or "out-of-field" radiation effects. Finally, an important aspect of classical "danger" signals is that they link initial nonspecific immune responses in a pathological site to the development of specific adaptive immunity. Interestingly, in the case of radiation, there is little evidence that "danger" signals efficiently translate radiation-induced tumor cell death into the generation of tumor-specific immunity or normal tissue damage into autoimmunity. The suggestion is that radiation-induced "danger" signals may be inadequate in this respect or that radiation interferes with the generation of specific immunity. There are many issues that need to be resolved regarding "danger" signaling after exposure to ionizing radiation. Evidence of their importance is, in some areas, scant, but the issues are worthy of consideration, if for no other reason than that manipulation of these pathways has the potential to improve the therapeutic benefit of radiation therapy. This article focuses on how normal tissues and tumors sense and respond to danger from ionizing radiation, on the nature of the signals that are sent, and on the impact on the eventual consequences of exposure.

Elevated tumor cyclooxygenase (COX-2) expression is associated with increased angiogenesis, tumor invasion, and suppression of host immunity. We have previously shown that genetic inhibition of tumor COX-2 expression reverses the immunosuppression induced by nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC). To assess the impact of COX-2 expression in lung cancer invasiveness, NSCLC cell lines were transduced with a retroviral vector expressing the human COX-2 cDNA in the sense (COX-2-S) and antisense (COX-2-AS) orientations. COX-2-S clones expressed significantly more COX-2 protein, produced 10-fold more prostaglandin E 2 , and demonstrated an enhanced invasive capacity compared with control vectortransduced or parental cells. CD44, the cell surface receptor for hyaluronate, was overexpressed in COX-2-S cells, and specific blockade of CD44 significantly decreased tumor cell invasion. In contrast, COX-2-AS clones had a very limited capacity for invasion and showed diminished expression of CD44. These findings suggest that a COX-2-mediated, CD44-dependent pathway is operative in NSCLC invasion. Because tumor COX-2 expression appears to have a multifaceted role in conferring the malignant phenotype, COX-2 may be an important target for gene or pharmacologic therapy in NSCLC.

We used wild-type and isogenic mutant strains of group A Streptococcus (GAS) that expressed M protein, capsule, or both to study the function of M protein and the hyaluronic acid capsular polysaccharide in attachment of GAS to human keratinocytes. Types 6 and 24, but not type 18, M protein were found to mediate attachment of GAS to soft palate or skin keratinocytes, but this interaction was prevented by the hyaluronic acid capsule on highly encapsulated, or mucoid, strains. Monoclonal antibody to CD44, the principal hyaluronic acid-binding receptor on keratinocytes, inhibited attachment of both highly encapsulated and poorly encapsulated wild type strains of GAS, but not the attachment of acapsular mutants. Transfection of K562 cells with cDNA encoding human CD44 conferred the capacity to bind each of six wild-type strains of GAS, but not to bind acapsular mutants. Because, in contrast to other potential adhesins, the group A streptococcal capsule is both highly conserved and surface-exposed, it may serve as a universal adhesin for attachment of diverse strains of GAS to keratinocytes of the pharyngeal mucosa and the skin. ( J.

Monoclonal antibody RR 1/1 directed against the putative LFA-1 ligand molecule intracellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) was found to inhibit the T cell proliferative response to the antigen PPD. Interestingly, the percentage of unstimulated monocytes which expressed ICAM-1 on their surface appeared to vary greatly from person to person although the majority of monocytes did express high levels of ICAM-1 within their cytoplasm and surface expression could be rapidly induced on most cells by adherence to fibronectin. Resting T cells showed no evidence of surface or cytoplasmic ICAM-1 although expression was induced both within the cell and on the membrane as a result of activation with phytohemagglutinin or a combination of OKT3 and phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate. The significance of these findings with respect to the function of monocyte and T cell in the generation of an immune response is discussed.

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