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Since 1917 all Puerto Ricans, whether island-or mainland-born, are United States citizens. Physical proximity and relatively affordable transportation encourages Puerto Rican migration to the mainland United States. Puerto Rican migration takes three forms: the "one-way migrants," who move permanently to the mainland; the "return migrants" who migrate to the mainland but after many years return to the island and reestablish residence; and the "circular migrants" who migrate back and forth between the island and the mainland spending substantial periods of residence in both places. The following analysis emphasizes the conditions that instigate the departure of Puerto Rican migrants from both the island and the mainland, and discusses the implications of Puerto Rican circular migration for social work and the provision of social welfare programs and services.

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