Prostate cancer is the most common cancer in men by way of diagnosis and a leading cause of cancer-related deaths. Early detection and intervention remains key to its optimum clinical management. This review provides the most updated information on the recent methods of prostate cancer screening, imaging and treatment modalities. Wherever possible, clinical trial data has been supplemented to provide a comprehensive overview of current prostate cancer research and development. Considering the recent success of immunotherapy in prostate cancer, we discuss cell, DNA and viruses based, as well as combinatorial immunotherapeutic strategies in detail. Furthermore, the potential of nanotechnology is increasingly being realized, especially in prostate cancer research, and we provide an overview of nanotechnology-based strategies, with special emphasis on nanotheranostics and multifunctional nanoconstructs. Understanding these recent developments is critical to the design of future therapeutic strategies to counter prostate cancer.

Non-muscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) is a major type of bladder cancer with a high incidence worldwide, resulting in a great disease burden. Treatment and surveillance are the most important part of NIMBC management. In 2018, we issued “Treatment and surveillance for non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer in China: an evidence-based clinical practice guideline”. Since then, various studies on the treatment and surveillance of NMIBC have been published. There is a need to incorporate these materials and also to take into account the relatively limited medical resources in primary medical institutions in China. Developing a version of guideline which takes these two issues into account to promote the management of NMIBC is therefore indicated. We formed a working group of clinical experts and methodologists. Through questionnaire investigation of clinicians including primary medical institutions, 24 clinically concerned issues, involving transurethral resection of bladder tumor (TURBT), intravesical chemotherapy and intravesical immunotherapy of NMIBC, and follow-up and surveillance of the NMIBC patients, were determined for this guideline. Researches and recommendations on the management of NMIBC in databases, guideline development professional societies and monographs were referred to, and the European Association of Urology was used to assess the certainty of generated recommendations. Finally, we issued 29 statements, among which 22 were strong recommendations, and 7 were weak recommendations. These recommendations cover the topics of TURBT, postoperative chemotherapy after TURBT, Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) immunotherapy after TURBT, combination treatment of BCG and chemotherapy after TURBT, treatment of carcinoma in situ, radical cystectomy, treatment of NMIBC recurrence, and follow-up and surveillance. We hope these recommendations can help promote the treatment and surveillance of NMIBC in China, especially for the primary medical institutions.

An imbalance of different types of CD4(+)Foxp3(+) T cells might be involved in renal transplant rejection.

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