Six studies regarding forgiveness are presented. The Heartland Forgiveness Scale (HFS), a self-report measure of dispositional forgiveness (with subscales to assess forgiveness of self, others, and situations) was developed and demonstrated good psychometric properties. Forgiveness correlated positively with cognitive flexibility, positive affect, and distraction; it correlated negatively with rumination, vengeance, and hostility. Forgiveness predicted four components of psychological well-being (anger, anxiety, depression, and satisfaction with life); forgiveness of situations accounted for unique variance in these components of psychological well-being. Forgiveness and hostility demonstrated equivalent, inverse associations with relationship duration, and forgiveness accounted for unique variance in relationship satisfaction, even when controlling for trust. Forgiveness level correlated positively with decreased negativity in statements written about transgressions in the present versus the past tense.

A cognitive, motivational theory is introduced to the educational research community. Hope theory integrates the conceptualization of goals, along with the strategies to achieve those goals (pathways), and the motivation to pursue those goals (agency). In a 6-year longitudinal study, individual differences in hope, as measured by the Hope Scale (C. R. Snyder et al., 1991) scores of entering college freshmen, predicted better overall grade point averages even after controlling for variance related to entrance examination scores. High-relative to the low-hope students also were more likely to have graduated and not to have been dismissed over this 6-year period. Hopeful thinking in college academics is discussed, along with the contributions of hope theory for educational research and practice.

The tenets of a cognitive, motivational model called hope theory (Snyder et al., 1991) are reviewed, along with the two accompanying instruments for measuring hope in children and adolescents. More than a decade of research on hope theory as it relates to students, teachers, and schools is summarized. Likewise, the applications of hope theory for school psychologists are reviewed.School psychologists contribute greatly in helping students, teachers, and schools in general to become more hopeful. As such, we see school psychologists serving in the role of "caring coaches" (Snyder, 1994) who help parents, students, teachers, and staff members to reach their education-related goals. In this article, we provide information so as to expand the already positive influence of school psychologists. To this end, we describe the tenets of hope theory, along with two brief hope scales that can be used with young children and adolescents. Moreover, we summarize the hope research conducted mainly in our laboratory, along with its implications for use by school psychologists. HOPE THEORYSnyder and colleagues (Snyder et al., 1991) have introduced a new cognitive, motivational model called hope theory. Having undergone a series of reconceptualizations (Snyder

Because having hope is requisite for the establishment of satisfying adulthoods, factors contributing to its development must be understood. Using structural equation modeling, the current study tested propositions that hope (1) develops in the context of a secure relationship with a supportive adult in childhood (Snyder, 1994), and (2) mediates the relationship between developmental processes and adult mental health outcomes. There was a good fit of the data to the hypothesized model. Adult attachment mediated the relationship between parenting and hope, and hope partially mediated the relationship between attachment and mental health. The developmental trajectory of hope is discussed as it relates to parenting and attachment, and a tripartite approach is suggested for developing primary and tertiary interventions for at-risk youth.Young adults and late adolescents typically are concerned with age-related developmental tasks such as planning for their future educations,

Attachment theory provides a model for understanding how the attachment styles formed in infancy systematically affect subsequent psychological functioning across the life span. Attachment styles provide the cognitive schemas, or working models, through which individuals perceive and relate to their worlds. In turn, these schemas predispose the development of psychopathologies and influence outcomes when people undergo psychotherapy. After reviewing recent empirical findings, the authors conclude that an understanding of attachment theory facilitates the conceptualization of clients' problems and the selection of appropriate interventions. Accordingly, attachment styles should be assessed as a standard part of treatment planning. Furthermore, the authors propose that attachment styles should be assessed as individual difference variables in psychotherapy outcome research because adult attachment styles dictate how people perceive and respond to their environments and, therefore, how clients respond differentially to various treatments.