BackgroundMedications and their prices are key issues for healthcare. Although access to medicines at affordable prices had been specified as a key objective of the European Health Policy, it seems that these goals have not been achieved. Therefore, we attempted an evaluation of affordability of selected medicines at full prices.MethodsThe analysis concerned 2012 and was conducted between 2013 and 2015 in all the European Union (EU) countries divided into 3 groups depending on the date of their accession to the EU. Finally, we considered 9 originators used in the treatment of schizophrenia and multiple sclerosis. Information on drug prices were collected from pharmacies. Participation in the study was voluntary and anonymous in order to avoid accusations of advertising. To evaluate affordability, several factors were used (e.g. minimum earnings and Gini coefficient). Due to unavailability in some countries, the exact number of analyzed medicines varies.ResultsDrug prices vary significantly between EU Member States. Almost eleven fold difference was observed between Germany (EUR 1451.17) and Croatia (EUR 132.77) in relation to Interferone beta-1a 22 μg. Generally, prices were the highest in Germany. The cheapest drugs were found in various countries but never in the poorest ones like Bulgaria or Romania. Discrepancies in wages were observed too (the smallest minimum wage was EUR 138.00 in Bulgaria and the highest EUR 1801.00 in Luxembourg). Full price of olanzapine 5mg, however, was higher in Bulgaria (EUR 64.53) than, for instance, in Belgium (EUR 37.26).ConclusionsAnalyzed medications are still unaffordable for many citizens of the EU. Besides, access to medicines is also impaired e.g. due to parallel trade. Unaffordability of medications may lead to the patients’ non-compliance and therefore to increased direct and indirect costs of treatment. Common European solutions are needed to achieve a real affordability and accessibility of medications.

The silicon-glass MEMS high dose radiation sensor with the optical read-out, acting above 10 kGy has been presented. The sensor consists of a microchamber filled with small portion of high density polyethylene (HDPE) and thin silicon membrane. The principle of operation of the sensor is based on radiolysis effect of the HDPE which, upon radiation exposure, releases the hydrogen. The hydrogen increases the pressure inside the microchamber causing the deflection of the membrane, which is proportional to the pressure, thus to radiation dose. The sensor has been irradiated with high energy electron beam with dose 5÷40 kGy. The displacement of the membrane has been detected by optical interferometer. The relative generated pressure inside the sensor chamber has been found very high (up to 180 kPa). It shows that response of a micro-scaled MEMS sensor is much more effective in comparison to macro-scaled solutions.

This communication reports the very first experimental results on an original wireless, chipless and passive (battery-less) sensor for monitoring high doses of nuclear radiation. The micro-sensor combines a miniature hydrogen pressure dosimeter with a passive microwave resonator. The pressure response is derived from S11-parameter measurement using vacuum and atmospheric pressure conditions. After e-beam irradiation (20kGy) the resonant frequency shift of the resonator ranges between 0.12%/kGy and 0.42%/kGy while the hydrogen pressure inside the cavity varies from 20mbar/kGy to 90mbar/kGy. No significant frequency shift is observed when using sensors during 6 months. These results demonstrate that a good hydrogen hermetic seal was fabricated during the manufacturing process of the constitutive micro-cavity.

New MEMS sensor for detection of high doses (above 10 kGy) of radiation has been presented. The sensor is made of silicon and glass in a form of anodically bonded sandwich 9 × 16 × 2.6 mm 3 . The sensor contains chamber with small portion of high density polyethylene (HDPE) and thin silicon membrane. Irradiation releases gaseous hydrogen, which flows from the chamber to the membrane. For known radiation dose pressure of hydrogen destroys the membrane, what is optically noticed. The sensor show good detectability of doses of radiation up to 120 kGy.

Abstract. Investigation of hermetic sealing of selected polymers in silicon-glass microcavities has been presented. The anodic bonding method has been adapted for hermetic encapsulation of the polymer in microcavity. According to standard conditions of the anodic bonding process (temperature: 400°C, voltage: 1000 V), the main challenge was the significant reduction of temperature in order to avoid degradation of the polymer. An analysis of the influence of reduced temperature and oxygen-free atmosphere on bond quality has been done. Proper parameters of the anodic bonding process enabling good and hermetic encapsulation of the polymer in the microcavity as well as optimal polymer treatment have been elaborated. Studies have shown that the closure of high density polyethylene in microcavity by anodic bonding process at a temperature reduced to 340°C is possible. This procedure will be used for the fabrication of main elements for a new family of high radiation MEMS sensors.Key words: anodic bonding, polymer filling, sealing of silicon and glass.Sealing of silicon-glass microcavities with polymer filling P. KNAPKIEWICZ* and I. AUGUSTYNIAK Faculty of Microsystem Electronics and Photonics, Wrocław University of Technology, 11/17 Janiszewskiego St., 50-372 Wrocław, Poland in presence of polymer, reduced temperature and oxygen-free atmosphere is necessary and is the main subject of this article. The technology developed and described here opens the way to fabricate MEMS sensors of high level of radiation. The development of high radiation MEMS sensor, including sensor technology and radiation tests, is presented in [21]. Technical analysis2.1. Anodic bonding process. The direct silicon-to-glass anodic bonding is a direct sealing process in which a stable chemical bond between bonded materials is obtained. The anodic bonding process is a complicated chemical reaction, which has been shown in three main steps (Fig. 1) [22]:• generation of electrostatic force by applied voltage -initiation of joining substrates, • formation of depleted layer in glass by sodium ion current, • formation of Si-O chemical bond.